Vitamin B6

Pyridoxine, Pyridoxal Phosphate, Pyridoxamine

Overview

Vitamin B6 is a part of the vitamin B complex group. The vitamin is water-soluble and is sometimes referred to as Pyridoxine. This vitamin aids in the metabolism of amino acids and the production of glucose from glycogen.

Though many of the vitamin B group members have properties that work against cancer, vitamin B6 has no known anti-cancer effects associated.

More studies must be conducted to conclude its effects. Some unofficial studies indicate vitamin B6 effectiveness in preventing colon cancer in healthy patients. However, more studies are necessary. Some experts indicate that vitamin B6 have been effective in treating patients with prostate cancer.

Recommended Daily Allowances (RDA)

Experts recommend consuming foods that allow individuals to meet their daily allowance without a supplement. Most people can meet their daily requirement for vitamin B6 without a supplement. Those who cannot meet the daily requirements should consider a supplement.

Experts recommend taking the vitamin after a meal and with copious amounts of water. Children who need a vitamin B6 supplement should consult with a physician prior to consumption.

The daily allowances of vitamin B6 vary by age groups. Experts recommend increasing vitamin B6 dosage as the person ages:

• Males: 14 to 18 years: 1.3 mg Average
• Females: 14 to 18 years: 1.2 mg Average
• 19 to 50 years: 1.3 mg
• Males: 51 years and older: 1.7 mg
• Females: 51 years and older: 1.5 mg
• Pregnant females: 1.9 mg
• Breastfeeding females: 2.0 mg
• Newborns: 0 to 6 months: 0.1 mg
• Infants: 7 months to 1 year: 0.3 mg
• Children: 1 to 3 years: 0.5 mg
• Children: 4 to 8 years: 0.6 mg
• Children: 9 to 13 years: 1 mg

To prevent heart disease or lower homocysteine levels, patients should consume 3.0 mg per day of vitamin B6. Physicians have in the past prescribed more to treat certain conditions. However, vitamin B6 should not be consumed in doses above 100 mg per day without a doctor’s supervision.

Sources of Vitamin B6

As mentioned earlier, experts recommend receiving the daily recommended allowance of food from natural food sources. Some of these sources may include the following foods:

• Chicken
• Tuna
• Turkey
• Salmon
• Shrimp
• Beef Liver
• Lentils
• Beans
• Sunflower Seeds
• Carrots
• Spinach
• Milk
• Cheese
• Brown Rice
• Bran
• Wheat Germ
• Whole-Grain Flour

For those who cannot meet the daily allowances, vitamin B6 can be found in supplements, such as multivitamins, and B complex vitamins. Adult vitamins may be found in the form of tablets, softgels and lozenges. Children’s supplements are often found in chewable tablets or liquid drops. Those seeking vitamin B6 supplements should also check for the names pyridoxamine, pyridoxal, pyridoxine hydrochloride, and pyridoxal-5-phosphate. Each name represents the vitamin B6 supplement.

History of Vitamin B6

Vitamin B6 was first discovered during a study in the 1930s. The study originated from scientists who were studying nutrition in rats. Paul Gyorgy, a Hungarian physician, first discovered vitamin B6 when he recognized that he could cure skin disease in rats with vitamin B6. Another scientist, Lepkovsky, isolated vitamin B6 from rice bran.

The structure of pyridoxine was demonstrated by Harris and Folkers in 1939. By 1945, scientist, Snell, was able to prove two separate structures of vitamin B6 existed. One of the structures was referred to as pyridoxal and the other pyridoxamine. After this discovery, vitamin B6 was referred to as pyridoxine to indicate its relationship to the structure pyridine. Each of the three forms of vitamin B6 paid a large role in the essential enzyme production within the body.

The enzymes promoted by vitamin B6 involve several amino acids. Scientists have documented over 140 activities related to the presence of vitamin B6 in the body.

Health Benefits

Several health benefits have been documented by scientists as it relates to vitamin B6. Some of the most common health benefits are listed below:

• Scientists have long speculated that vitamin B6 played a significant role in the treatment for Pre-Menstrual Syndrome (PMS), Pre-Menstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD), and clinical depression.

• Some scientists have cited that vitamin B6 plays a significant role in the treatment for schizophrenia and autism.

• Studies have shown that vitamin B6 have increased the vividness of dreams and the ability to recall dreams. Scientists suspect that dream vividness is due in part to the conversion process of tryptophan to serotonin. Vitamin B6 is a component in this process.

• Some studies show that the consumption of vitamin B6 could reduce the risk of Parkinson’s disease by 50 percent. One such study was conducted in the Netherlands. However, the analysis showed that only smokers showed a decrease in the risk.

• Vitamin B6 or pyridoxine plays a significant role in heart disease prevention. Homocysteine levels rise when there is a pyridoxine deficiency. Studies have shown that elevated homocysteine levels may damage blood vessel linings and promote blood clots. When the body attempts to heal the blood vessel linings, it makes the person more vulnerable for plaque buildup and blood clots. Vitamin B6 prevents buildup and reduces the risk of heart attack.

• Pyridoxine or vitamin B6 lowers cholesterol levels and blood pressure. This keeps the blood platelets from coagulating to form a clot.

• Physicians often recommend a vitamin B6 supplement combined with magnesium to combat autism. This is a popular remedy in alternative medicine for this disease. Children develop autism before the age of three. This disorder affects the nervous system. Children suffering from the disorder often have difficulty with social interaction and communication.

• Some scientists indicate that vitamin B6 combined with magnesium can also alleviate the symptoms associated with attention deficit disorder (ADD). Studies have shown that the combination can improve hyperactivity, aggressiveness, and attention span in a classroom or work setting.

• Individuals who have a vitamin B6 deficiency may also experience sensitivity to monosodium glutamate (MSG). MSG is a popular flavor enhancer found in many Asian dishes. Some people report nausea, dizziness, vomiting, headaches, pain or tingling of upper extremities after consuming the Asian food containing MSG. Studies show an improvement in individuals who possessed a deficiency prior to consuming MSG.

• Individuals with a deficiency in vitamin B6 may be more susceptible to developing carpal tunnel syndrome. This may occur if the person is on minimally deficient in vitamin B6. Individuals who suffer from carpal tunnel syndrome may experience pain and tingling in the wrists after typing repetitively or other repetitive hand motion. Two studies have shown that vitamin B6 has been beneficial in treating carpal tunnel syndrome in patients who do not have significant trauma.

• Vitamin B6 has been recommended by physicians and scientists for relieving premenstrual syndrome (PMS). However, the data is inconclusive as to which symptoms are relieved by the intake of Vitamin B6. Some studies show that females who consume vitamin B6 have fewer symptoms of bloating, acne flares, and breast pain. Studies show strong evidence leaning towards the effects of vitamin B6 in acne flares that begin before and during a women’s menstrual cycle. The acne flares are a result of a hormone imbalance that occurs before and during a woman’s menstrual cycle. Approximately ten days before a woman’s menstrual cycle, vitamin B6 should be consumed to prevent acne break outs. The vitamin is thought to be effective because it regulates hormones and prostaglandin.

• Some experts cite that a deficiency of vitamin B6 may also lead to depression. Vitamin B6 or pyridoxine helps to produce serotonin and other neurotransmitters. After a vitamin B6 supplement, patients cite that their mood and their memory improve.

• Individuals suffering from morning sickness have cited that consumption of vitamin B6 alleviated some of the symptoms associated with this ailment. Experts speculate that this may be in part due to the fact that vitamin B6 may act as a diuretic.

• Other studies indicate that vitamin B6 may be effective in alleviating the effects of an alcoholic hangover as well. This is also due to the diuretic nature of vitamin B6. More studies should be conducted to prove this finding conclusively.

• Some experts suggest that vitamin B6 or pyridoxamine has been effective in treating diabetic nephropathy. Further studies should be done to prove this finding conclusively.

• Studies show that moderate intake of vitamin B6 may decrease the risk of colon cancer by half. More studies are necessary to prove the finding conclusively.

Ailments from Vitamin B6 Deficiencies

The benefits from vitamin B6 consumption are plentiful. Conversely, the lack of vitamin B6 may cause some undesirable conditions. Some of the most common deficiencies are listed below:

• Atrophic glossitis

This condition is referred to as smooth tongue. Experts have suggested that a tender or painful tongue may be the result of a vitamin B6 deficiency.

• Angular cheilitis

Angular cheilitis describes a lesion at the corner of the mouth that is usually characterized by cracks or splits. The lesion may also be inflamed. Scientists have come to believe that vitamin B6 deficiency may play a role in the development of this condition.

• Intertrigo

Intertrigo describes the rash or inflammation that occurs where the body folds. Areas such as, under the arms, under the breast and other places are affected. Vitamin B6 deficiencies may lead to this condition. More research is needed to prove this conclusively.

• Conjunctivitis

Conjunctivitis describes the inflammation of the eye. The condition often occurs because of an allergic reaction or an infection. The condition may be viral, but it is sometimes bacterial. Vitamin B6 deficiencies may also be the cause of this condition as well.

• Seborrehoeic dermatitis

Seborrhoeic dermatitis may also be known as Seborreheic eczema. The condition affects sebum rich areas of the body, such as scalp, face and torso. The skin becomes scaly, flaky, itchy, and red as a result. These symptoms are characteristic of vitamin B6 deficiencies.

• Somnolence

Somnolence is a strong desire for sleep for long periods of time. This chronic condition may be a result of a vitamin B6 deficiency.

• Confusion

When a vitamin B6 deficiency occurs in the body, individuals have reported states of confusion or loss of orientation. The person may forget their personal identity or be unable to locate themselves properly within the world.

• Neuropathy

Some of the most common neuropathic disorders are associated with diabetes mellitus. This occurs when there is an injury to the small blood vessels that supply nutrients to the nerves. Vitamin B6 deficiencies may be the cause of some of these common neuropathic disorders.

• Rheumatoid arthritis

Individuals with rheumatoid arthritis often have low levels of vitamin B6. Some studies indicate that people with rheumatoid arthritis may need to consume more vitamin B6 than healthy people. This is due chronic inflammation problems associated with rheumatoid arthritis. Individuals suffering with rheumatoid arthritis should consult their doctor before taking any supplements.

• Heart disease

Individuals who have deficiencies of vitamin B6 in their diets are at greater risk for heart disease. Individuals with high homocysteine levels associated with low levels of vitamin B6 may have damaged blood vessels and increased chances of blood clot formation.

• Depression

Vitamin B6 deficiencies are often associated with depression. Serotonin levels affect a person’s mood. Experts suggest that vitamin B6 plays a role in the production of serotonin. Therefore, increased vitamin B6 intake may improve depression. More research is being conducted to determine its true benefit.

• Carpel tunnel syndrome

Experts have found that deficiencies in vitamin B6 may contribute to the symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome. More studies should be performed to prove this finding conclusively.

• Pre-menstrual syndrome

Vitamin B6 deficiencies may be a factor in symptoms associated with PMS. Many of the studies conducted to prove that vitamin B6 deficiencies played a role PMS were not designed properly. Therefore, more research must be conducted to prove this finding conclusively. However, many female patients have remarked that vitamin B6 supplements have alleviated some of the symptoms and improved their moods. Consult a physician before beginning a vitamin B6 regimen. Improvements may take up to 3 months.

• Morning sickness

Several studies have been conducted to prove that vitamin B6 deficiencies may cause morning sickness. Pregnant women who consumed 30 mg of vitamin B6 daily found that the effects of morning sickness decreased. Pregnant women should consult with a physician before taking vitamin B6 supplements.

• Parkinson’s disease

Some experts suggest that daily consumption of vitamin B6 may reduce the risk of Parkinson’s disease. This is thought to be true since the vitamin improves neurological functions. More studies are needed before this finding is conclusive.

Vitamin B6 deficiency is uncommon in individuals as a solitary deficiency. The deficiency is usually accompanied by another deficiency, such as another vitamin in the B complex. The elderly, most commonly, experience a vitamin B6 deficiency. Alcoholics may also experience a vitamin B6 deficiency. Renal patients undergoing dialysis may also experience vitamin B6 deficiencies.

Patients consuming anticonvulsants or corticosteriods may experience a vitamin B6 deficiency, as well.

Severe vitamin B6 deficiencies may lead to damage to the nervous system and also to the skin. Less severe deficiencies due to an impaired tryptophan-niacin conversion may manifest as lesions to the skin.

Physicians can detect this impairment by testing the urine for xanthurenic acid. Vitamin B6 deficiencies may also occur from an impaired process of “transsulfuration of methionine to cysteine.”

Precautions when Taking Vitamin B6

Patients who are taking any of the following medications should consult a physician prior to starting a vitamin B6 regimen:

• Cycloserine or Seromycin: This medication is used to treat patients afflicted with tuberculosis.
• Hydralazine or Apresoline: This medication is used to treat patients with high blood pressure.
• Isoniazid: This medication is used to treat patients with tuberculosis.
• Penicillamine: This medication is used to treat rheumatoid arthritis.
• Theophylline or TheoDur: This medication is used to treat asthma.

Most of these medications may require a supplement because the medications deplete the system of vitamin B6. However, it is also always recommended to consult a physician to avoid complications or problems associated with vitamins.

Drug Interactions

Antibiotics: Vitamin B6 vitamins have been known to interfere with the absorption of the antibiotic tetracycline. The timing of the vitamins and antibiotics should be spaced out in order to avoid unpleasant interactions.

Antidepressant Medications: Experts recommend taking vitamin B6 to boost the effectiveness of antidepressants. Some antidepressants that benefit from vitamin B6 are as follows:

• Nortriptyline or Pamelor
• Amitriptyline or Elavil
• Desipramine or Norpramin
• Imipramine or Tofranil
• Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs), such as Phenelzine (Nardil) or tranylcypromine (Parnate)

Chemotherapy drugs: Vitamin B6 may reduce some of the side effects associated with chemotherapy drugs, such as 5-fluorouracil and doxorubicin. Consult a physician before taking a vitamin B6 supplement.

Erythropoietin (EPO): Erythropoitin therapy may deplete vitamin B6 levels present in the body. Therefore, some people may need a supplement in order to replenish vitamin deficiency.

Levodopa: This medication is used to treat Parkinson’s disease. Experts suggest that vitamin B6 reduces the effectiveness of levodopa. A physician should determine the dosage of vitamin B6 that is required to avoid interaction with the drug. A physician should closely monitor the consumption of both drugs in combination.

Phenytion or Dilantin: Patients who take phenytoin for seizures may notice that the drug is slightly less effective if taken with vitamin B6. Patients should consult a physician prior to taking the drugs in conjunction.

Role in Biological Process

Vitamin B6 or pyridoxal phosphate is involved in several biological processes. Pyridoxal phosphate is involved in neurotransmitter synthesis, histamine synthesis, macronutrient metabolism, gene expression and hemoglobin synthesis. This metabolically active form of vitamin B6 acts as a coenzyme to help facilitate transamination, racemization, decarboxylation, elimination, replacement, and beta-group interconversion reaction. Vitamin B6 is metabolized in the liver.

Amino Acid Metabolism

Pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) plays a significant role in the metabolism of amino acids. This vitamin assists two enzymes as methionine is converted to cysteine via two separate reactions. When there is a vitamin B6 deficiency, there is decreased activity related to these enzymes. Pyridoxal phosphate is also responsible for assisting the enzymes found in the metabolism of selenomethionine to selenohomocysteine.

Selenohomocysteine is converted to hydrogen selenide. Vitamin B6 is also involved in the process of converting tryptophan to niacin. The conversion process will be impaired if vitamin B6 status is low. Vitamin B6 is also responsible for the conversion of the following amino acids:

• Tryptophan to Serotonin
• Histindine to Histamine
• Glutamate to GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
• Dihydroxyphenylalanine to Dopamine

Gluconeogenesis

Pyridoxal phosphate is necessary for the gluconeogenesis process. The vitamin catalyzes transamination reactions. Vitamin B6 also acts as a coenzyme in the glycognenolysis process. The coenzyme is necessary for glycogen phosphorylase.

Lipid Metabolism

Vitamin B6 plays an important role in the biosynthesis of sphingolipids. This process is dependent upon vitamin B6 because one of the enzymes, S1P Lyase needs the vitamin to complete the process.

In most processes, vitamin B6 assumes the role of a coenzyme to other enzymes in the body in the metabolism process. Vitamin B6 is found in the following processes:

• Gene Expression
• Neurotransmitter Synthesis
• Histamine Synthesis
• Amino acid, lipid and glucose metabolism
• Hemoglobin synthesis and function

Gene Expression

This process is responsible for transforming homocysteine into cysteine. The interim process involves changing cistation into cysteine. Pyridoxal phosphate plays a role in the gene expression process by increasing or decreasing the expression of genes present. A deficiency of vitamin B6 will lead to an increased expression of albumin mRNA.

Neurotransmitter Synthesis

Pyridoxal phosphate dependent enzymes are responsible for the biosynthesis of several neurotransmitters. The neurotransmitters include the following:

• Serotonin
• Epinephrine
• Norpinephrine
• Gamma-aminobutyric Acid

Histamine Synthesis

Pyridoxal phosphate or vitamin B6 is often involved in the metabolism of histamine.

Hemoglobin Synthesis and Function

The synthesis of hemoglobin is facilitated by pyridoxal phosphate. Vitamin B6 can bind on two sites present on hemoglobin. This process facilitates the binding of oxygen to hemoglobin.

A Guide to Vitamin B-1 (thiamine)

Vitamin B-1 is also known as “Thiamine” or “Thiamin.” It was the first of the eight B-vitamins to be discovered by scientists. It is also a very important substance to animals and people because they use this vitamin and other B-vitamins to digest carbohydrates, fats and proteins. People also seem to have other uses for vitamin B-1 to control vital everyday bodily functions. As a result, Thiamine is a versatile and important B-vitamin which people should know more about.

Here is a comprehensive guide about vitamin B-1 that can help people learn more about this vitamin and its uses. The guide is broken down into five sections that can help people learn various things about vitamin B-1.

Sections of the Guide

Section I includes information about some of the basic characteristics of vitamin B-1. This information can help people learn more about the vitamin’s functions and why it is vital to one’s good health.

Section II briefly outlines how people use vitamin B-1 in their bodies. This information includes how the body uses vitamin B-1 to maintain and regulate brain and heart activity. People can use this information to gain a better appreciation for Thiamine’s importance to a person’s health.

Section III describes what sorts of foods people can eat to obtain Thiamine. The list of foods that contain Thiamine is very long. As a result, people can quickly learn if any of their favorite foods have vitamin B-1.

Section’s IV and V

In addition, people can also learn how to cook or preserve foods that contain vitamin B-1 in such a way that they can keep more of this nutrient in their food.

Section IV provides USDA suggested daily intake values of vitamin B-1 for men and women of all ages. People can use this information to get a good idea of how much of the vitamin to take to maintain their health.

Finally, Section V lists some of the health problems that are associated with a Thiamine deficiency. People can learn what can happen to their circulatory systems and their central nervous systems if they don’t eat enough foods that contain Thiamine. Hopefully, this section can teach people the importance of eating enough foods that contain Thiamine.

At the end of the guide there is a bibliography which can help readers do research on Thiamine on their own if they wish.

Section I: Thiamine’s basic characteristics.

Here some of Thiamine’s most important characteristics which readers should know about:

Vitamin B-1 is a water-soluble vitamin that serves many useful purposes in the body due to its unique crystalline structure.

Vitamin B-1 is a water-soluble vitamin that serves as a catalyst (or co-factor) for metabolic reactions in the body. This is the case because it features a unique crystalline structure that makes it water soluble. This enables many parts of the body to quickly absorb and use the substance. As a result, many body functions rely on vitamin B-1 in at least a token manner because the body requires the body to metabolize food to work at its absolute best.

Furthermore, vitamin B-1 is also a very fragile vitamin that cannot be produced on its own by people’s bodies.

Vitamin B-1 is a fragile substance because it cannot tolerate high temperatures, ultraviolet light or alkaline conditions. It also cannot tolerate sulfates and other preservatives that are found in many processed foods because they tend to easily act as an oxidizer that creates other materials that are of no real use to the body. This fragility makes it difficult for the body to store enough Thiamine in the body for everyday purposes.

Furthermore, people cannot produce vitamin B-1 in their bodies. This is true because a person’s body does not have the physiological ability to create the crystalline structure that makes vitamin B-1 water soluble. As a result, people must eat enough foods that contain vitamin B-1 each day to maintain the right level of vitamin B-1 in the body.

Section II: Thiamine plays an active role in several everyday essential bodily functions.

Thiamine is an important B-complex vitamin to consume because it helps the body perform several important everyday functions. Here are some of the most important bodily functions that Thiamine helps the body perform each day:

Vitamin B-1 helps your body convert food into energy by acting as a catalyst that aids in digestion.

Most of us eat a variety of fats, proteins and carbohydrates every day. These foods are difficult for the body to digest because they require several processes to break the materials down into simple sugars that your body can quickly convert into energy.

Vitamin B-1 helps the body digests fats proteins and carbohydrates by acting as a catalyst compound that aids in breaking down fats, proteins and carbohydrates into simpler substances. This makes it possible for the body to gradually break down fats, proteins and carbohydrates safely and gradually into the building blocks the body uses for energy. As a result, Thiamine plays a very important role in digestion and metabolism.

Thiamine helps your body keep its mucous membranes in the digestive system healthy.

Mucus Membranes

Many of us take our mucous membranes for granted. This is a bad idea because our mucous membranes allow us to keep out dirt and most pathogens from entering our bodies by creating mucous that coats the lining of the lungs, nostrils and eyelids. Vitamin B-1 keeps these membranes healthy by giving them basic building blocks that they need to build new cells and tissue inside the body.

Vitamin B-1 helps the body’s nervous system function normally by providing the building blocks that are needed to maintain healthy nerve cells.

Thiamine helps the body’s nervous system function normally by providing the basic building blocks that are needed to maintain a neuron’s structure and function. This is true because the outer covering of a neuron contains Thiamine in its chemical make-up. As a result, vitamin B-1 plays an important role in maintaining a healthy nervous system.

Finally, Thiamine also helps the body’s cardiovascular system function normally by maintaining healthy red blood cells and blood circulation.

The circulatory system uses vitamin B-1 to maintain red blood cells and circulation by using Thiamine as a co-factor in maintaining the structure of red blood cells. This allows the circulatory system to function normally without putting as much stress on the heart and blood vessels.

Section III

There are many foods that people can eat that allow them to get enough vitamin B-1 into their diets. However, people must also be careful how these foods are processed or cooked because vitamin B-1 is a very fragile vitamin that is easily destroyed.

People must eat enough foods rich in vitamin B-1 each day because the body cannot store enough of the substance in its tissues to meet its everyday needs. Thankfully, there are many foods that people can eat each day that can give the body enough vitamin B-1 for the day.

Here are some examples of foods that are rich in vitamin B-1:

• Fruits such as oranges and pineapples.
• Whole grain foods such as rye meal cornmeal, oatmeal, wheat bran and rice.
• Vegetables such as asparagus, broccoli, carrots, cauliflower, green beans, kale and peas.
• Meat products such as cured ham, pork, veal hearts, liver and salmon.

Other foods such as brewer’s yeast and cheese also contain vitamin B-1. As a result, people can find several foods that are rich in vitamin B-1 to meet their tastes and budgets.

However, it is also important to carefully consider how to cook or process these foods because Thiamine is a very fragile vitamin.

This is the case because vitamin B-1 is very sensitive to heat and light. It is also very sensitive to many of the sulfates, sulfites and other chemical preservatives that are common in processed foods.

As a result, people should try to avoid using chemical preservatives to preserve foods that contain vitamin B-1. Furthermore, people should also try avoiding baking, boiling or heating most foods that contain vitamin B-1 because they could lose most of the substance during the cooking process.

This is especially true for most of the vegetables that contain vitamin B-1 because they tend to lose most of the vitamin B-1 they contain when they are introduced to heat during the cooking process.

Section IV

The amount of vitamin B-1 needed each day for a healthy lifestyle depends on many physiological and lifestyle factors.

The amount of Vitamin B-1 that is needed to maintain a healthy lifestyle varies according to a person’s age and other factors. This is true because people tend to have different needs for vitamin B-1 that depend on the person’s physiological requirements, their caloric needs and their lifestyle choices. As a result, people will have different energy needs that require different amounts of vitamin B-1 to function properly.

Here is a look at the suggested amounts of vitamin B-1 that the United States Department of Agriculture feels is enough for different persons in different age groups. They are reprinted from page 280 of the fourth edition of the Handbook of Vitamins edited by Zempleni, Rucker, et al:

• Children under 1 year of age should consumer 0.2-0.3 mg of vitamin B-1 per day.
• Children 1-8 years of age should consumer 0.5-06 mg of vitamin B-1 per day.
• Males 9-13 years of age require 0.9 mg per day.
• Males and females 11-18 years of age require 1.1-1.2 mg per day.
• Males and females over the age of 19 require 0.2-0.3 mg per day.
• Males and females over the age of 19 require 0.2-0.3 mg per day.
• Females 9-14 years of age require 0.9-1.0 mg per day.
• Pregnant and lactating females require 1.4 mg of vitamin B-1 per day.

As you can see, people tend to need more vitamin B-1 while they are growing up or pregnant because they need more energy to compensate for the drastic changes in their bodies that are occurring.

This makes it important to eat enough foods that contain vitamin B-1 throughout each stage of life because serious medical conditions could develop if people forget to eat enough foods that contain vitamin B-1 on a consistent basis. Section V below outlines these possible health problems.

Section V

People who do not eat enough foods that contain vitamin B-1 can face serious medical problems and even death if they are not treated in time.

This is true because vitamin B-1 is a very important player in several essential brain and heart functions that require a catalyst or co-factor to provide enough energy to execute properly. As a result, animals and people must eat enough foods rich in vitamin B-1 to avoid possibly serious health problems.

Here’s a look at some of the more common health problems that people can encounter if they don’t get enough vitamin B-1 into their diets:

One of the most common health problems that people with low thiamine levels encounter is called Beriberi.

Severe Cases

This awful disorder can affect the central nervous system or the cardiovascular system because the body cannot get enough energy to fuel the day-to-day activities of these areas of the body. When this happens, people can suffer from anorexia, fatigue, mental confusion, weight loss, delirium, wasting of the muscles and an enlargement of the heart.

People with very severe cases of Beriberi can die because the heart does not receive enough energy to work properly. This usually happens to people who are alcoholics or malnourished. The disorder can also happen to people who consume the vast majority of their calories from only simple carbohydrates.

Another common health problem that a vitamin B-1 deficiency can engender is called wernicke-korsakoff syndrome.

This syndrome affects the central nervous system of alcoholics who have destroyed their body’s ability to use and maintain vitamin B-1. It is thought that this syndrome happens in two stages that are named for the discoverers of this disorder.

How the Syndrome Works

According to the University of Maryland Medical Center, the “Wernicke” stage of the syndrome causes the nerves in the central and peripheral nervous systems to fail. This is true because the lack of vitamin B-1 can cause important enzymes around the nerves to fail to function properly. Once this happens, people can suffer from delirium, slurred speech and eyesight problems and irreversible nerve damage. Other patients have reported difficulty walking correctly and even hallucinations.

After these symptoms go away, the “Korsakoff” stage of the syndrome kicks in. When this happens, people can lose their ability to remember things. As time passes, people can begin to develop short-term and long-term memory problems that are irreversible if they are not treated in time.

Finally, people can also make heart problems much worse by not including enough Thiamine in their diets.

This is true because many people who take water pills for several common heart problems often have trouble absorbing enough vitamin B-1 into their systems. When this happens, many heart patients end up with many of the same symptoms that patients who suffer from Beriberi endure.

Bibliography:

Websites consulted:

The National Library of Medicine. “MeSh Descriptor Data Page about the Mucous Membrane.”

The University of Maryland Medical Center. “Vitamin B1 (Thiamine).”

Books consulted:

Combs, G. F. Jr. The Vitamins: Fundamental Aspects in Nutrition and Health. 3rd ed. Ithaca, NY: Elsevier Academic Press, 2008: PP 266-268.

Mahan, L.K & Stump. S. Krause’s Food & Nutrition Therapy. St. Louis, Mo: Saunders Elsevier, 2008: PP 82-84.

Zempleni, J., Rucker, R.B., McCormick, & D.B., Suttie, J.W. (Eds.). Handbook of Vitamins. 4th ed. New York: CRC Press, 2007: PP 268-270,278-280.

Online medical journal article consulted:

Rao, S.N. & Chandak, G.R. “Cardiac Beriberi: Often a Missed Diagnosis.” Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 24 Nov. 2009. Retrieved online 5-10-2010 from PubMed’s database website located at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed.

Vitamin A

Overview

Vitamins are organic compounds that living organisms need in order to survive. These compounds are molecules that cannot be synthesized efficiently and in large enough quantities by the body and must be obtained from outside sources like food and/or nutritional supplements.

Vitamins are classified based on how they interact with the body chemically rather than on their molecular structure. This means that, a particular vitamin, like Vitamin A, is not one specific substance, but rather a group of compounds and molecules that produce the same range of effects on the human body. These compounds and molecules are called vitamers.

For example, some common vitamers of Vitamin A include retinol, retinal, alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, gamma-carotene, and beta-cryptoxanthin. All of these compounds are chemically different, but work in the same way to provide the human body with proper nutrition.

Vitamins & Nutrition

Vitamins play a crucial role in human nutrition, helping the body to regulate cell growth, regulate hormones, and help enzymes to act as catalysts in metabolism. In addition to his, certain vitamins like Vitamin A, Vitamin E, and Vitamin C can act as powerful antioxidants, which can bind to dangerous, cancer causing free radicals in the body.

Vitamins are water or fat soluble, depending on the vitamin. Soluble refers to the ability of a vitamin to dissolve in a particular substance. In the case of water soluble vitamins such as Vitamin C, the human body uses as much as it needs for metabolism. The excess water soluble vitamin is then dissolved in the body’s fluid and excreted as urine.

For fat soluble vitamins, like Vitamin A, the body uses what it needs to maintain proper nutrition, and then stores the extra vitamin in the body’s fat stores and liver. The excess of the fat soluble vitamin cannot be eliminated from the body very easily, so over time, given enough of a fat soluble vitamin, toxicity can develop. In humans, Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat soluble, while the 8 B vitamins and Vitamin C are water soluble.

Growth and Nutritional Value

Vitamins are essential for growth and proper nutrition. They regulate many bodily functions including metabolism and hormones. Any deficiency in a particular vitamin can cause a host of medical problems including death.

History of Vitamin A

Vitamin A is one of the most important vitamins that humans need in order to survive because it is responsible for a large number of important functions in the body. Vitamin A was discovered in the early 1900s through experiments that probed the question of why cows produced healthier offspring when fed corn rather than wheat. In a series of experiments on mice, Elmer McCollum, noted that when mice were fed diets consisting only of protein, their offspring were often unhealthy and sometimes afflicted with birth defects.

When he introduced some fats into the diet, their offspring were born healthy and normal. He hypothesized that there was a certain chemical in the fat inclusive diet that was not found in the protein diet. This compound became known as Vitamin A and was recognized to be a fat soluble substance.

Until the 20th century, all vitamins had to be derived from food, but with advances in biochemistry, scientists were able to begin to synthesize all the necessary vitamins for human health. Vitamin A was synthesized in 1947 by David Adrian van Dorp and Jozef Ferdinand Arens, from the Netherlands.

Vitamers of Vitamin A

Vitamin A is not a single compound. Instead, it is a group of compounds that all have the same biologic effect on the body. These compounds are called vitamers. The vitamers of Vitamin A are retinol, retinal, alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, gamma-carotene, and beta-cryptoxanthin.

Retinol, derived from animal fat, is the body’s most usable source of Vitamin A. Several chemicals in the body have retinol as their bases including retinal, retinoic acid and retinyl esters. Retinal is a central component to human vision. Together, these molecules are referred to as retinoid compounds.

The three carotene vitamers belong to a class of organic molecules called carotenoids. Carotenoids are naturally occurring pigments found in plants and some fungi. Animals do not produce carotenoids. The names, “alpha,” “beta,” and “gamma” are used to denote structural differences on the molecular level among the organic compounds. Beta carotene is an inactive form of Vitamin A that can be readily converted into an active form by the body.

Beta-cryptoxanthin, like the carotene compounds, is a member of the carotenoid family. What differentiates it from the carotenes is that it has a slightly different structural formula in that it contains an oxygen molecule. Cryptoxanthin can be derived from both plant and animal sources including oranges, papaya, eggs, and butter.

Nutritional Benefits and Functions

Vitamin A is essential for basic bodily functions. Deficiencies in Vitamin A may cause illness or even death. Here are some of Vitamin A’s most important roles in human nutrition:

• Vision
• Immune Function
• Gene transcription
• Skin health
• Embryonic development
• Antioxidant properties
• Cell Growth

Vision

Normal vision is dependent on having a healthy retina and having enough Vitamin A. In the eye, the retina is an area of tissue on the back of the eye that is home to light sensitive cells called rods and cones. Rods are responsible for detecting light and dark, while cones allow people to perceive colors. Vitamin A plays a crucial part in vision.

In the retina, Vitamin A, in a form called cis-retinal, is combined with a protein called opsin, to form another compound called rhodopsin, which is a light sensitive compound found in rods. In cones, retinal binds with a protein to form iodopsin. When stimulated by light, Vitamin A in the form of cis-retinal transforms from being bent in shape to straight.

The straight shaped form of retinal is called trans-retinal. The molecule then detaches from the opsin protein. The opsin protein, then changes shape, signaling the brain to produce a black and white image of the objects being observed by the person. Most retinal used in this process is then released as trans-retinal and then converted back into cis-retinal where the cycle can begin again.

Immune Function

The immune system is the body’s defense against pathogens like dangerous viruses and bacteria. When a foreign invader, like a virus, enters the body, the body’s immune system detects that there is an unknown intruder and sends specialized cells to try to kill it.

Vitamin A helps to stimulate the immune system by promoting the overall health of the thymus gland. The thymus gland is a small gland in the neck that is part of the human immune system. The thymus gland produces specialized white blood cells called T-lymphocytes. These cells are the body’s “killer” cells activate during an immune response in an effort to rid the body of the pathogen.

Speeds up Immune Response

Vitamin A also helps their effectiveness and efficiency, speeding up the response time of the immune system. Also, Vitamin A has been shown to have anti-viral properties. Retinoic acid, derived from the vitamer retinol, plays an important role in the health and growth of delicate mucosal and epithelial tissues found in the respiratory and gastrointestinal systems.

Mucosal and epithelial tissues are some of the most basic defenses of the immune system. They produce mucus, which can trap bacteria and viruses, before they have a chance to invade the body any further.

Gene Transcription

Vitamin A plays an important role in gene transcription. Transcription is the process by which RNA is created from DNA, transferring genetic information to the RNA molecule. Retinol is used by cells to form retinal, which is then converted into retinoic acid. From there, retinoic acid binds with specialized receptors that can either turn on gene transcription or stop it from happening by undergoing a complex series of reactions.

Skin health

The benefits of Vitamin A have been long linked with maintaining healthy skin and complexion in humans. Deficiencies in Vitamin A can manifest themselves in people by causing dry and flaky skin. Vitamin A is important in regulating the growth and repair of skin tissue.

Although Vitamin A can be ingested for skin care, topical application remains the best treatment for skin conditions. Retinol creams have been shown to help prevent wrinkles from developing and masking the ones that already exist. Vitamin A can also help to control acne. Sebaceous glands are small glands in the skin that secrete material that is used by the body to lubricate the hair and skin.

They can harbor bacteria and get infected, which is the cause of acne outbreaks. Ongoing research has shown that retinoic acid that is applied topically can reduce the size of sebaceous glands and their secretions. The reduction of the sebaceous gland secretions is thought to be the reason why Vitamin A can combat acne.

The secretions provide nutrients for bacteria that cause acne, and without nutrition, the bacteria cannot take a foothold in the gland to produce a pimple.

Embryonic development

Vitamin A’s discovery was contingent on experiments dealing with the development of livestock offspring. It was discovered in the early 1900s by Elmer McCollum that female mice, which were deficient in Vitamin A, produced offspring that were unhealthy, had severe birth defects and/or died. Further research into this subject over the past 100 years has led to the understanding that an adequate amount of Vitamin A is a requirement for normal embryonic development.

Vitamin A is necessary for the embryo to form a healthy heart, nervous system, and skeleton. The correct balance of Vitamin A is also important in embryonic development and growth. While too little Vitamin A can cause birth defects and death of the fetus, so to can having too much of the vitamin.

Antioxidant properties

Oxidants, or free radicals, are oxygen carrying molecules in the body that can cause damage to cells, which can cause diseases like cancer. Antioxidants are molecules that can bind with free radicals, decreasing their potential to cause harm to the body on a cellular level. Some antioxidants can even help to repair damage done by free radicals. Vitamin A is a powerful antioxidant, however studies have been done that show that smokers who take Vitamin A supplements (in particular beta carotene) had an increased risk of developing lung cancer.

Cell growth

Much current research is underway to determine how Vitamin A affects cell growth. The mechanism is not fully understood, but it has been determined that retinoic acid plays a role in the production of glycoproteins. Glycoproteins are proteins that help cells adhere to one another.

Sources of Vitamin A and daily recommended values

Vitamin A in the form of retinol is found in animal products including meat, butter, eggs, and milk. The carotene vitamers of Vitamin A are plant based and can be found in large amounts in orange hued vegetables such as carrots, pumpkin, winter squashes, sweet potatoes, apricots, cantaloupe, mango, and papaya. For example, a 1 cup serving of raw carrots provides 686% of the daily value of Vitamin A required by the body. Green vegetables such as kale, spinach, broccoli, and leafy greens are also a good source of Vitamin A.

The daily recommended amounts of Vitamin A depend on age and gender. Typically, men require more than non-lactating females. For adult males, the daily recommended amount of Vitamin A is 900 micrograms per day, with a maximum of 3000 micrograms per day. For adult females, the recommended amount per day is 700 micrograms, with the maximum amount being 3000 micrograms.

Females who are breast feeding need more Vitamin A in order to provide an adequate supply of nutrition for the newborn baby. The recommended amounts for breast feeding women are 1300 micrograms with an upper limit of 3000 micrograms.

Unlike other vitamins and minerals that may be leached or destroyed by cooking and processing, Vitamin A is largely unaffected by these methods of food preparation.

Vitamin a deficiency

Vitamin A deficiency is a major nutritional problem faced by millions of people across the world. Most often, these deficiencies are seen in developing countries that have limited food supplies. Developing countries often have a lack of quality meats that are the best sources for Vitamin A. Also, meat contains the mineral iron which is important in the body’s utilization of Vitamin A.

Night blindness and a lack of tear production are major factors contributing to blindness caused by a Vitamin A deficiency. Night blindness is a condition in which a person does not have adequate photoreceptive cells that can process light entering the eye.

As seen earlier, the retinal form of retinol plays an important role in vision by binding with proteins in the retina to form molecules that help to transmit nerve impulses from the retina to the brain.

Vitamin A deficiency can also affect the eye’s ability to produce tears. Tears serve the function of washing the eye of debris and bacteria. Without tears, the eyes lose an important component in the body’s fight against infection. Each year between one quarter and one half of a million children worldwide go blind because of inadequate Vitamin A intake.

A condition called hyperkeratosis may develop in people afflicted with Vitamin A deficiency. People manifesting the symptoms of this condition develop small bumps on the skin that is the result of excess keratin proteins blocking hair follicles. Other symptoms include itching, dry skin, and eventual hair loss over the whole body.

Vitamin A deficiency can be either primary or secondary in origin. A primary deficiency is one caused by an inadequate supply of nutrients, while a secondary deficiency is caused by another underlying condition. One cause of secondary Vitamin A deficiency are medical conditions like Crohn’s disease, celiac disease, cystic fibrosis, gallbladder disease, and liver disease.

These diseases can affect the body’s ability to absorb fat, robbing the body of its best source for Vitamin A. Outside agents like chemicals and pollutants can cause the liver to not function correctly, breaking down the Vitamin A that it would normally store.

Vitamin A deficiencies can be detected by blood tests using high performance liquid chromatography. The results should be no lower than 0.7 mg/L. Blood tests to detect serum retinol binding proteins may also be used. These have the advantage of being less expensive than a liquid chromatography test, but are less accurate.

The prognosis for Vitamin A deficiency is good as long as blindness has not set in. Once a patient suffering from Vitamin A deficiency has developed blindness as a result of the condition, mortality rates increase due to other irreversible damage that occurs concurrently with blindness.

Treatment for Vitamin A deficiency includes oral and injectable supplements.

Vitamin A toxicity

Vitamin A is a fat soluble vitamin. After metabolism, excess amounts are stored in the body’s fatty tissues instead of being excreted in urine. Fat soluble vitamins that are stored in fatty tissues can linger in the body for long periods of time, thus increasing the potential for a toxic buildup of excess Vitamin A to occur. For adults, acute Vitamin A toxicity can occur if daily amounts exceed 3000 micrograms. Chronic Vitamin A toxicity can occur over a period of months when over 1200 micrograms are taken daily. Alcohol consumption can amplify the toxic effects of the vitamin.

Symptoms of acute poisoning include nausea, vomiting, headache, dizziness, vision problems, loss of muscular control, dry skin, anemia, insomnia, fatigue, and skeletal problems.

In some people, excess amounts of Vitamin A can cause osteoporosis and bone breakage. Excess Vitamin A can interfere with the uptake of Vitamins K and D which are critical to bone strength and health.

Treatment for Vitamin A toxicity includes maintaining proper hydration, providing oxygen, and cessation of Vitamin A sources and supplements.

Death from Vitamin A toxicity is rare.

Conclusion

Vitamins are essential nutrients needed by the human body to maintain normal, daily functions. Vitamin A is perhaps one of the most important vitamins because of its wide ranging implications for overall health. It has a role in every day life from birth until death by means of its effects at the cellular level on cell division and RNA transcription. It also allows humans to see the world.

Every day thousands of people around the world go blind due to a Vitamin A deficiency. Through proper nutrition, Vitamin A deficiencies are largely preventable. While foods are the primary source for Vitamin A, in the last century, humans have learned to chemically synthesize it, allowing even those people with poor nutrition to obtain enough of the vitamin to stave off blindness and other problems caused by ingesting too little of it.

References

1. Pazirandeh S, Burns DL. Overview of fat-soluble vitamins I. UpToDate. 2002.

2. Russell RM. The vitamin A spectrum: from deficiency to toxicity. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Apr 2000.

3. West CE. Meeting requirements for vitamin American Nutritional Review 2000 Nov;58(11):341-5 2000.

4. Groff JL, Gropper SS, Hunt SM. Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism. West Publishing Company, New York, 1995 1995.

Phylloquinone/K1

Vitamin K1 comes in two forms, Phylloquinone, the natural version of vitamin K1, and phytonadione, the synthetic form of vitamin K1. Vitamin K1, is a viscous oil, clear to amber in color, odorless, and fat soluble.

The name phylloquinone is given to natural occurring vitamin K1 because it is an indirect product of photosynthesis in plant leaves where it occurs in chloroplasts and participates in the overall photosynthetic process.

Vitamin K1 is commercially manufactured for medicinal use under several brand names (Phylloquinone, Phytonadione, AquaMEPHYTON, Mephyton, and Konakion). Vitamin K1 is used by the body to form prothrombin, which is a protein used in blood clotting. Additionally, vitamin K1 is used in synthesizing proteins needed in the formation of bones and cartilage.

Discovery

The K group, which contains vitamins K1, K2, and K3, was discovered by Danish scientist Henrick Dam in 1929. During this time, Ham was studying cholesterol metabolism in young chickens. He noted a new deficiency syndrome in the young birds fed a fat deficient diet.

The characteristic features were a lengthened blood clotting time, anemia and hemorrhage. Ten years later, an American biochemist named Edward Doisy was able to extract the vitamin. Together with Henrick Dam, Edward Doisy won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1943.

Sources

Vitamin K1 is found primarily in fruits like kiwi and avocados, green, leafy vegetables such as spinach, and plants from the mustard family like kale, cabbage, and broccoli. Vitamin K1 is also found in cow milk, cheeses, canola and olive oil, eggs, and cereals. Cooking does not remove significant amounts of vitamin K from these foods.

Vitamin K1 can also be found in a wide variety of supplements, from multi vitamins, to injections, to creams. Vitamin K1 cream is often used in diminishing bruising and in stimulating the healing process. If you take an anticoagulant, be sure to avoid vitamin supplements with vitamin K1.

Vitamin K1 injections are used primarily in newborns as they are susceptible to a deficiency in vitamin K1. Injections of vitamin K1 can be used in treating bleeding and clotting diseases, adult vitamin K deficiencies, and other problems. Vitamin K1 pills are used to treat the same conditions as the injections, except in the case of newborns.

Vitamin K1 and Health

Vitamin K1 used topically has been used as a treatment for rosacea, in alleviating under eye circles, and diminish bruising and spider veins. Vitamin K1 has been tested and shown to reduce the risk of hip fracture.

Data from the 1998 Nurses Health Study found that women who eat lettuce more often has a significantly lower risk of hip fracture than those women who consumed smaller amounts of lettuce.

There are some indications that vitamin K1 may decrease the incidence or severity of osteoporosis and slow bone loss. A recent study in June of 2009 concluded that vitamin K1 helps in slowing down the hardening of arteries in those afflicted with the condition. The study showed that taking 500 micrograms of vitamin K1 a day slowed the coronary artery calcification (CAC).

Vitamin K1 has been shown to treat the following conditions: Bleeding Prophylaxis, Coumarin Toxicity, Hemorrhage, Hemorrhage Disease of the Newborn (HDN), Liver cancer, Kidney stones, Thrombosis, Osteopenia, Hemorrhage Disease of the Newborn (HDN) Prophylaxis, Hypoprothrombinemia, and Osteoporosis Prophylaxis. If you are prone to bruising or if you are pregnant you may consider taking a vitamin K supplement.

Levels of Vitamin K

In 2000, the National Academy of Sciences established the following Adequate Intake (AI) levels for vitamin K:

• Males and females, 0-6 months: 2 micrograms
• Males and females, 7-12 months: 2.5 micrograms
• Males and females, 1-3 years: 30 micrograms
• Males and females, 4-8 years: 55 micrograms
• Males and females, 9-13 years: 60 micrograms
• Males and females, 14-18 years: 75 micrograms
• Males, 19 years and older: 120 micrograms
• Females, 19 years and older: 90 micrograms
• Pregnant or lactating females, 18 years and younger: 75 micrograms
• Pregnant or lactating females, 19 years and older: 90 micrograms

Deficiency

A deficiency in vitamin K1 results when the body is unable to absorb the vitamin in the intestinal track. The average diet contains enough vitamin K1 and vitamin K1 deficiency is rare in adults. Typically, a deficiency in vitamin K1 is due to impaired absorption rather than a poor diet.

New born infants have an increased risk of a vitamin K1 deficiency. In the United States, the Committee on Nutrition of the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that 0.5 to 1.0 milligrams of vitamin K1 be administered to all newborn infants shortly after birth. A vitamin K1 deficiency in newborn infants can cause hematomas, risk of uncontrolled bleeding, and birth defects such as underdeveloped nose, face, bones, and fingers.

Others with a risk of vitamin K deficiency include individuals who suffer from liver damage or disease, those who have undergone digestive track surgery, people who have problems with their gallbladder, pancreas, or liver function, those with cystic fibrosis inflammatory bowel diseases, celiac disease, ulcerative colitis, bulimics, individuals on stringent diets, and people taking anticoagulants. Blood tests to measure clotting may be done to help confirm a diagnosis of vitamin K1 deficiency.

Vitamin K Controversy

Newborn infants routinely receive a vitamin K1 injection after birth in order to prevent (or slow) a rare problem of bleeding into the brain weeks after birth. The fetus has low levels of vitamin K1 as well as other factors needed in clotting. Supplementation of vitamin K1 to the pregnant mother does not change the K1 status of the fetus, confirming the importance of its specific levels.

Towards the end of gestation, the fetus begins developing some of the other clotting factors, developing two key factors just before term birth. It has recently been shown that vitamin K1 is involved in regulating the rate of cell division in the fetus. In the 1990s two studies suggested the possibility that abnormally high levels of vitamin K1 could have the potential to cause to cancer.

In 2000, these studies were reexamined and found to contain poor methods and small sample sizes and was discredited. Many parents, however, still question the use of vitamin K1 injections in their newborn infants.

Vitamin K1 and Animals

Just as in humans, animals can develop vitamin K1 deficiencies. In animals, deficiencies of vitamin K1 can lead to blood clotting issues and bleeding diseases. Deficiencies of vitamin K1 typically are caused by poisoning by arsenic (rat poison).

Arsenic can inhibit the formation of vitamin K1 and interfere with its clotting abilities. Other causes of vitamin K deficiencies in animals are liver disease, which results in poor absorption of vitamin K1 and medications containing high doses of warfarin. Vitamin K1 injections and pills are used in treating animals deficient in vitamin K1 and is obtained through a prescription from a veterinarian.

Toxicity and side effects:

There is no known toxicity associated with large doses of vitamin K1. High intake of vitamin K is not recommended for individuals taking anticoagulant medications such as Warfarin. Side effects are very rare and may include flushing, or redness of the face, dizziness, chest pain/tightening of the chest, fast heart rate, decreased appetite and movement in infants, skin rashes, and profuse sweating.

Drug interactions:

Drugs that may affect the intake of vitamin K1 are:

• warfarin (Coumadin)
• mineral oil, orlistat (Xenical)
• cholestyramine (Questran, Prevalite)
• a salicylate such as aspirin (Ascriptin, Bayer, etc)
• choline salicylate and/or magnesium salicylate (Magan, Doan’s, Bayer Select Backache Pain Formula, etc)
• salsalate (Disalcid)
• nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) such as ibuprofen (Motrin, Advil,etc), ketoprofen (Orudis, Orudis KT, Oruvail)
• naproxen (Naprosyn, Anaprox, Aleve)
• diclofenac (Voltaren, Cataflam)
• nabumetone (Relafen)
• oxaprozin (Daypro)
• piroxicam (Feldene)
• etodolac (Lodine)
• fenoprofen (Nalfon)
• flurbiprofen (Ansaid)
• indomethacin (Indocin)
• ketorolac (Toradol)
• sulindac (Clinoril)
• tolmetin (Tolectin)

Be sure to always consult with your doctor before taking any medication with vitamin K1.

Nutrient Interactions

Research on nutrient-nutrient interactions with vitamin K has traditionally focused on the major fat-soluble vitamins – specifically vitamins A, E, and D. Unfortunately, this research has given rather mixed results.

Those undergoing treatment with anticoagulant drugs have been shown to have their anticoagulant therapy and their vitamin K1 levels impacted by high doses of vitamin E. For this reason, intake of both vitamin K1 and vitamin E for individuals undergoing treatment with anticoagulant medications needs to be determined with the help of a healthcare provider.

In healthy individuals, high intake of vitamin has no noticeable interactions with vitamin K1 levels. However, under some circumstances, higher supplement intake of vitamin E (above 1,000 milligrams) has been shown to interfere with vitamin K1 function and, in some cases, to promote hemorrhaging.

Calcium Metabolism

Since calcium metabolism can be greatly affected by both vitamin D and vitamin K1, researchers suspect some key interactions between these two fat-soluble vitamins. However, the exact nature of this interaction has yet to be determined.

Similar to the research on vitamin E in food, no food intake of vitamin A has been show to compromise vitamin K1 level. Excess supplemental intake of vitamin A (in its retinol form), however, has been shown to interfere with the vitamin K-related clotting ability of the blood (and to cause a condition called hypothrombinemia). The amount of vitamin A triggering this potential problem with vitamin K1 level in adults is typically 10,000 IU (3,000 micrograms) or higher.

Article references:

http://www.umm.edu/altmed/articles/vitamin-k-000343.htm

http://www.cyberlipid.org/vitk/vitk0001.htm

http://www.greatvistachemicals.com/vitamins-vitamin/phytonadione-vitamin-k1.html

http://www.petplace.com/drug-library/vitamin-k1-veta-k1/page1.aspx

http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/FY/FY20900.pdf

http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/vitamin-k/index.html

http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec12/ch154/ch154l.html

Beta Carotene

Beta  Carotene or B  Carotene

Beta carotene is a vitamin A precursor that is produced by many different species of plants. It belongs to a group of chemicals known as carotenes, which are themselves part of a larger chemical group called carotenoids. beta-carotene, sometimes written as b carotene, is also known as provitamin A. Vitamin A, which can be synthesized from its provitamin, may sometimes be called retinol.

Carotenes belong to a large group of chemicals known as carotenoids. Carotenoids are all strongly colored red, yellow and orange pigments. They are fat or lipid soluble and are found in many different types of fruits and vegetables. Carotenoids are also antioxidants.

Chemical Makeup

A carotene is a type of chemical that was first discovered in the 19th Century after being isolated from carrots. There are three types of carotene that can be used by the human body to produce Vitamin A: alpha, beta and gamma carotenes. Since they are not themselves vitamins, but can be converted into a vitamin, the carotenes are considered to be precursors or provitamins.

The chemical that can be produced from the carotenes, vitamin A, is an essential nutrient that plays a role in vision and growth. A vitamin A deficiency can be seriously harmful, and may even lead to death, although it can be cured by eating a diet rich in fruits and vegetables, which contain high levels of beta-carotene.

Carotenes are produced by plants, but although they are necessary as vitamin precursors in animals, they must be obtained from food since animals cannot synthesize carotenes for themselves.

Animals can produce vitamin A, however, and it is therefore possible to get vitamin A directly from the diet rather than having to manufacture it from beta-carotene. Beta or b carotene is the most common form of carotene.

Chemistry

All carotenoids are based upon a chain of hydrocarbons. This is made up of small units of isoprene. In beta-carotene, there are eight isoprene units, which form beta cycles at either end. This means that the units on the ends of the molecule are twisted around into circles.

The exact molecular structure of beta-carotene was discovered in the early 1930s. This was the first time that the structure of any vitamin or vitamin precursor had been established.

The orange color of a carotenoid is produced by the long chain of isoprene units. This is because the hydrocarbon chain absorbs light in the blue and green ranges, but reflects back red and yellow light. Only the reflected light is seen by the observer. beta-carotenes are found in orange and yellow colored fruits and vegetables, and are responsible for the color of these foods.

There are also beta-carotenes present in many green vegetables and leaves, but the orange color of the beta-carotenes is hidden by the green color of the chlorophyll. The leaves of deciduous trees turn orange before they fall because the chlorophyll in them has been broken down, leaving only the color of the carotenes.

During the 1950s, scientists began to develop techniques for artificially synthesizing beta-carotene. This led to the production of synthetic beta-carotene supplements and food colorings.

B carotene and Vitamin A

beta-carotenes are converted by the body into vitamin A or retinol. beta-carotene is converted into retinol, which is necessary for the eyesight. Retinol is converted into retinoic acid, which is used for growth and cell division. The functions of beta-carotenes in the body are therefore the same as those of vitamin A, since beta-carotene is converted into vitamin A before being used.

Beta-carotene is usually converted into vitamin A by gradually breaking down the beta-carotene molecule from one end, but it can also be converted by splitting the molecule in two. The conversion takes place within the cells that make up the small intestine. An enzyme called beta-carotene dioxygenase carries out the process.

Once vitamin A has been produced, it needs to be stored until it is required. It is first converted into retinyl esters, and is then transported through the body in the lymphatic system and blood. The vitamin A that is produced from the breakdown of beta-carotene is mainly stored in the liver in the form of retinyl esters. Some retinyl esters are also stored in the kidneys, lungs and adipose fat tissue, but between 50 and 80 percent of stored vitamin A is found in the liver.

Function

Vitamin A is essential for vision. The body converts vitamin A or retinol, through an oxidization reaction, into retinal. This is combined with an opsin protein in order to produce a light sensitive molecule. When one of these molecules is hit by a photon of light, the retinal component changes its shape, setting off a sequence of events that will eventually lead to a signal being sent to the visual part of the brain through the optic nerve, where it will be decoded as vision. Retinal is responsible for the ability to detect light and therefore to see.

There are two different types of light sensitive cell in the eye, and they use different chemicals in which to see. Rhodopsin is present in the light receptors known as rods, whereas a different chemical called Iodopsin is used by the cone cells. Rods are most effective in dim light, while cones provide color vision. Both types of receptors depend upon the ability of retinal to react to light.

Vitamin A also performs some other functions in the body. It is used in the production of some glycoproteins, which are protein molecules to which carbohydrates have been attached. Vitamin A plays a crucial role in growth and bone development, reproduction and the maintenance of the skin and mucous membranes such as the lining of the mouth and nose.

These linings help to prevent infection by keeping out infectious agents from the digestive system, urinary tract and the respiratory system. The importance of vitamin A in the body is clear, since a deficiency of this vitamin can lead to abnormal development of the bones, reproductive disorders, a condition called xerophthalmia that caused the cornea of the eye to become dry, and even to death.

Deficiency

Most people will consume an adequate amount of beta-carotenes in their normal diet, but it is possible to suffer from a vitamin A deficiency when a poor diet does not provide enough vitamin A or the carotenes fro which it can be manufactured. A diet that contains low levels of beta-carotenes will not be harmful as long as enough vitamin A is being consumed in other food. A diet without enough vitamin A or beta-carotene will be harmful. If there is a deficiency of vitamin A, due to malnutrition or illness, it can be cured by eating beta-carotene rich foods.

The earliest symptoms of a vitamin A deficiency are visual problems in low light situations, dry hair and skin, fingernails that break easily and a lowered resistance to infection. The more serious signs of a vitamin A deficiency are anemia, abnormal bone development, and permanent damage to the eyes.

The retina may be injured badly enough to cause blindness. Even when there are no vitamin A deficiency symptoms, a person who is not getting enough vitamin A could suffer from an increased risk of developing diarrheal and respiratory infections and a decreased growth rate and bone development. Fertility can also be reduced.

Health Problems with Deficiency

A vitamin A deficiency can be very serious. It is rare in the US, where most people consume more than enough beta-carotene and vitamin A in their diet.

However, a deficiency in vitamin A is the most common cause of preventable blindness in children worldwide, and it affects people in more than half of the countries in the world. Low income families in Southeast Asia and Africa are most likely to be affected. It is the young children and pregnant women within these families who are most likely to suffer from vitamin A deficiencies.

Vitamin A is required at higher levels during pregnancy, and children have smaller stores of vitamin A in their livers than adults. An adult can have enough vitamin A in their liver to last for an entire year, but a child’s supply can only last for a few weeks at most.

During Pregnancy

During pregnancy, the highest risk of developing a vitamin A deficiency occurs during the third trimester, when both baby and mother require large amounts of vitamin A. If the mother is not receiving enough vitamin A during this period, she will suffer from night blindness, and may experience other symptoms. \

She may also have a higher risk of maternal mortality. It is not recommended for women who have a good, balanced diet to take vitamin A or beta-carotene supplements, however, since they are not necessary. Vitamin A supplements could even increase the chances of birth defects in the baby.

Deficiency in Children

Children who are not obtaining enough vitamin A are at risk of blindness and other visual impairments, and they are also more likely to catch serious diseases such as measles, or to suffer from diseases that can cause diarrhea. These illnesses can be fatal. A lack of vitamin A can also cause growth problems and defects in the development of the skeleton.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO) it is estimated that there are 250 million children of preschool age who are suffering from a vitamin A deficiency, and that between 250,000 and 500,000 of these children are made blind because of this deficiency every year. Half of the children who go blind in this way will die within the next year.

It is possible to die from a vitamin A deficiency, and according to the World Health Organization (WHO), it is possible to significantly decrease mortality rates by ensuring an adequate supply of vitamin A.

Cases in the US

In the US, cases of vitamin A deficiency are most likely to occur in patients who are elderly or who are suffering from chronic illnesses that can reduce the absorption of vitamin A and carotenes from the intestine. Patients who have inflammatory bowel disorder (IBD), pancreatic insufficiency or cystic fibrosis have an increased risk of vitamin A deficiency.

Vegans and people who suffer from alcoholism are also more likely to have a deficiency, due to decreased ingestion and absorption of vitamin A. Some cases of malnutrition do occur in the US, but these are more common overseas.

It is possible to treat a vitamin A deficiency by eating foods that contain beta-carotene or vitamin A, or by taking supplements of one of these chemicals.

If the diet contains too much beta-carotene, it can lead to the skin turning a yellowish color. It will not, however, cause an excess of vitamin A in the body. Some of the vitamin A that is produced but which is not currently needed will be stored in the liver, where it can remain for several years. Some will be stored in the fat tissue of the body. If there is a lot of beta-carotene in the diet, then it will not all be converted into vitamin A. An excess of vitamin A in the body would be harmful.

Traditional Beliefs

It is often said that carrots can help people to see in the dark. Since one of the symptoms of a vitamin A deficiency is night blindness, this belief clearly has some foundation in fact. Although eating carrots cannot enhance night vision above normal abilities it can prevent it from deteriorating by providing the precursor for vitamin A production.

Antioxidant

beta-carotene is an antioxidant. Antioxidants are chemicals that can react with free radicals, which are highly reactive, charged molecules. Free radicals are produced by the body during respiration or energy production and can cause damage that in involved in the ageing process and cancer. It may be possible for antioxidants in food to protect the body from this sort of damage, but there is no definitive scientific proof that eating foods containing high levels of antioxidants can actually help to protect the body.

Medicinal Uses

beta-carotene has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a treatment for erythropoietin protoporphyria. This is an inherited condition that is very rare. It causes problems in the metabolism of the chemical porphyrin-heme. This can lead to photosensitivity, with the skin reacting painfully to light, dysfunction of the liver, and production of gallstones. Patients are treated with an over the counter beta-carotene supplement, and may also need to take antihistamines.

Consuming beta-carotene and other carotenoids can help to prevent a vitamin A deficiency, but a diet that is rich in carotenoids is not necessary as long as there is plenty of vitamin A in the diet. There is therefore no recommended intake of carotenoids according to the Institute of Medicine’s Food and Nutrition Board.

The American Heart Association, among other health groups such as the International Agency for Research on Cancer (part of the World Health Organization) advise that people should obtain beta-carotene from a diet that is high in fruits and vegetables rather than by taking dietary supplements.

Some of the scientific research that has been conducted on beta-carotene treatment has not yet produced clear results. These treatments have not yet been proven to be successful, but neither have they been proven unsuccessful.

Potential Uses

These potential uses for beta-carotene are as treatments for cataract prevention, reducing the adverse side effects of chemotherapy, treating chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), improving cognition and memory, preventing asthma attacks that are induced by physical activity, enhancing the immune system, promoting remission in patients with oral leukoplakia, preventing and slowing the progression of osteoarthritis, treating polymorphous light eruption (PLE), reducing the risk of sunburn and UV induced erythema, and reducing complications during pregnancy. Further research may clarify the effect of beta-carotene on these conditions.

beta-carotene has also been tested as a treatment for a number of other conditions for which it was not found to be helpful.

Potential Side Effects

There was even some evidence that it could be harmful when used in patients with these conditions, particularly if beat carotene was a replacement for other more beneficial therapies. beta-carotene was not found to be effective for the prevention or treatment of Alzhemier’s disease or abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAAs), preventing the development of new moles on the skin, preventing cancer or cardiovascular disease, eradicating the bacteria that can cause stomach ulcers (Helicobacteria pylori), preventing or slowing macular degeneration, preventing stroke, or reducing injuries following surgery.

Taking supplements of beta-carotene was also found to have no effect on overall mortality rates. There is some evidence that beta-carotene may be harmful in patients who have undergone angioplasty.

Sources of Beta-Carotene

beta-carotene occurs naturally in many plants. It is found in green vegetables and fruit and vegetables that are orange or yellow. Spinach, broccoli, carrots, red peppers, nectarines, melons and mangoes are all good sources of beta-carotenes.

A diet that includes five portions of fruit and vegetables every day will provide between 6 and 8 milligrams of beta-carotene per day. A healthy body can maintain adequate levels of vitamin A with just 1800 micrograms of beta-carotene, therefore it is rare for a diet to be deficient in carotenes. There is no recommended daily allowance (RDA) for beta-carotenes, due to a lack of evidence on its importance, but the RDA for vitamin A is 0.9 milligrams per day for an adult man and 0.7 milligrams a day for an adult woman. Pregnant women and those who are breastfeeding require a higher daily intake.

Vitamin A can also be consumed directly, rather than as its precursor, beta-carotene. Egg yolks, dairy products and fish oils all contain high levels of vitamin A. Liver is also rich in this vitamin, and in fact, the liver of the polar bear contains such large amounts of vitamin A that it is poisonous to humans.

Supplements

beta-carotene is available as a dietary supplement. It can be manufactured synthetically or derived from fungi, algae or palm oil. Supplements of beta-carotene can be taken in a number of different forms, including gelatin capsules, tablets and chewable tablets.

There is some scientific evidence that consuming too much beta-carotene in the form of supplements may be harmful. A study found that there was an increased risk of developing lung cancer when people who were exposed to other risk factors for the disease, such as smoking or working in an environment where they were exposed to asbestos, took beta-carotene supplements.

There is no evidence of what the effect may be on non-smokers and people who are not already at an elevated risk of lung cancer, but it is possible that taking supplements of beta-carotene could be harmful. No similar effect has been detected when beta-carotene is eaten in food.

This means that it is important, when taking beta-carotene supplements, to avoid consuming too much beta-carotene. The UK Food Standards Agency advises against exceeding a dose of 7 milligrams of beta-carotene a day. Doctors may recommend taking a higher dose than this in some cases, but this is only when there is a serious deficiency that needs to be corrected. Anyone who is a smoker or who has been exposed to asbestos should avoid taking supplements of beta-carotene.

Absorbing Beta-Carotene

In order to absorb beta-carotene, the body must use some of the fat that has been eaten. This means that when beta-carotene is taken as a supplement, it will require some dietary fat in order to be absorbed by the body. No difference has been found in the absorption rate between individuals consuming a low fat or a high fat diet, however, since the amount of fat that is required is very low.

In order to absorb beta-carotene, the body must use some of the fat that has been eaten. This means that when beta-carotene is taken as a supplement, it will require some dietary fat in order to be absorbed by the body. No difference has been found in the absorption rate between individuals consuming a low fat or a high fat diet, however, since the amount of fat that is required is very low.

Elevated levels of vitamin A in the body can be harmful, causing problems with the bones that may lead to an increased risk of experiencing fractures in old age. Although beta-carotene is converted into vitamin A it does not pose a similar risk. The body is not efficient enough at turning beta-carotenes into vitamin A for a high intake of beta-carotenes to cause high enough levels of vitamin A to harm the body.

Food Coloring

In addition to being manufactured as a dietary supplement, beta-carotenes are produced and used as colorings in food products.

Sources:

• Mayo Clinic: Beta Carotene
• Food Standards Agency: Beta carotene
• National Cancer Institute: Beta Carotene Supplements Confirmed as Harmful to Those as Risk for Lung Cancer