Edaravone is an antioxidant, a type of molecule which has been proven to slow, reduce, or prevent the oxidation of surrounding molecules. As a free radical scavenger, edaravone is one of the newer types of antioxidants within the past ten years.

Edaravone is an antioxidant currently marketed by Mitsubishi Pharma in Japan, where it has been since 2001. Currently, it is not widely available and obtained only through Mitsubishi Pharma. A potent antioxidant, edaravone is a strong free radical scavenger. Free radical scavangers can protect against oxidative stress and neurological degeneration, leading edaravone to be the subject of many studies on neuroprotective benefits within the past decade.

Researchers have deemed edaravone to be a neuroprotective agent, and studies have shown it to assist in neurological recovery following cerebral infarction. Many central nervous system diseases such as schizophrenia, strokes, and Parkinson’s disease have acquired increased interest in recent years, and subsequently encouraging research on edaravone’s possibility for neuroprotection.

History of Edaravone

In February of 2000, it was announced that edaravone had been filed in Japan and was in the third phase of trials for subarachnoid hemorrhage; the filing also indicated edaravone could be used in developing a treatment for acute brain infarction. In November of 2000, Mitsubishi-Tokyo (now Mitsubishi Pharma) issued a press release stating it was developing edaravone as norphenazone, described as a free radical scavenger. Mitsubishi indicated the potential use for edaravone would be in research on its protective effects on cardiovascular disease, cerebral edema, and cerebrovascular ischemia.

By February 2000, edaravone had been filed in Japan for the treatment of acute brain infarction, and was in phase III trials for subarachnoid hemorrhage [365460]. The compound blocks the action of the lipoperoxide, 15-HPETE, which normally increases with age and may be associated with neurodegeneration.

As an Antioxidant

Many modern diseases are widely believed to be caused by oxidative stress which occurs due to an imbalance or deficiency of antioxidants. Caused by free radicals, oxidative stress occurs when macromolecules (like DNA, lipids, and proteins) are damaged and lipid peroxidation occurs. By damaging the cells, oxidation is believed to contribute to atherosclerosis, inflammatory diseases, aging, cardiovascular problems, and cancer.

Oxidative stress has been found in clinical research to be present in cases of common diseases in humans, such as neurodegenerative problems and heart attacks. While many scientists believe oxidation can contribute, it is not known for a certainty whether or not oxidative stress causes the diseases or occurs as a byproduct. Initial studies done over broad spectrum antioxidant supplement have shown while small supplements of antioxidants can be beneficial, an excess supplementation of antioxidants can be harmful. Antioxidants are used in industrial manufacturing in larger quantities, supporting the theory that an overdose of supplements would be harmful to the body.

About Antioxidants

Antioxidants work to combat oxidation, a chemical reaction that produces free radicals. In turn, through oxidation the free radicals begin a “chain reaction” which damage surrounding healthy cells, contributing to disease, degeneration, and complicating illnesses. While oxidation is necessary to transfer oxygen to cells and is essential for life, the reactions can also be damaging.

Plants and animals tend to have complex biological systems which support multiple kinds of antioxidants. Common antioxidants found in plants and animals are vitamin C, catalase (an enzyme), vitamin E, gluthathione, and many kinds of peroxidases. By terminating the chain reactions through the removal of intermediate free radicals, antioxidants inhibit other oxidation via being oxidized. Higher instances of oxidative stressors and cell damage are found in living beings with low levels of antioxidants.

Enzymes

Enzymes such as catalase and superoxide dismutase, compounds like ascorbic acid, or tocopheral, are used by human cells to protect themselves against the damage caused by free radicals. All human cells use these enzymes, but disruptions can occur in the biological process. This has led many health experts and biologists to encourage the supplementation (within reason) to keep the balance of antioxidants at a healthy level in order to combat the damage oxidization might cause.

Possessing powerful free radical suppression and active antioxidant properties, edaravone has been used recently as an agent for commercial research in developing treatments for diseases which have strong ties to high levels of oxidization.
Research and Possible Uses

Radicut Bag

In February of 2010, an advisory and research firm on healthcare and pharmaceutical issues reported that Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma had gained approval for Radicut Bag, an intraveneous formulation of edaravone available only in Japan. The first instance of edaravone being widely manufactured and distributed, the approval of Radicut Bag as a treatment method has bolstered edaravone to become one of the top selling acute ischemic stroke therapies in the global pharmaceutical market. Radicut Bag is approved through 2018, and is expected to launch later in 2010 in Japan.

The convenient method of administering edaravone through an intravenous bag is a big plus in an emergency care setting, where most stroke sufferers seek treatment. The sales for edaravone marketed as Radicut Bag are estimated to be approximately $286 million dollars by 2018 in Japan.

Acute Ischemic Stroke

In Japan, the free radical scavenger has been used to treat patients with acute ischemic stroke, which results from decreased blood supply to the brain. Patients suffering from acute ischemic stroke were shown to have improved functional outcomes after being treated with edaravone in a random controlled trial. As the ischemic brain can produce free radicals when injured, it was theorized that edaravone could also help suppress neuronal death, prevent brain edema, and avert cell injury by aggressively acting as a free radical scavenger. Similar results were found in treating patients with acute cerebral infarction, where oxidative brain damage was repressed after treatment with edaravone.

The effect of edaravone’s therapeutic effects on patients severely suffering from carotid-territorial stroke was the subject of another study. The results showed that two of the patients to which edaravone was administered were able to be released to outpatient status within eight weeks after the initial onset of the stroke. These findings did not mimic the remarkable effect edaravone had on patients with an earlier onset of the disease, but did not prevent infarcts from spreading or subsequent edema, leading to the conclusion that edaravone was not beneficial in improving functional results among surviving patients.

Gastrointestinal Injury

After being tested as a protectant against ischemia, edaravone was evaluated as a recently developed agent for free radical scavenger against gastrointestinal injury. In the study, performed on rats, intraveneous administrations of edaravone were given at five minute intervals. Increases in oxidative activity were shown to be significantly inhibited by the rats receiving edaravone.

Intestinal bleeding was also observed macroscopically and microscopically to reduce following edaravone treatment. In the study, edaravone administrations were also shown to have an effect on reducing levels of mRNA and protein. By scavenging for free radicals caused by oxidization, the study’s results suggested that edaravone provided protection for the small intestine against injury.

Acute Lacunar Infarction

Known for its role in inhibiting neural damage caused by free radicals by repressing brain oedema after ischemia, delaying neuronal death, cell injury, and tissue injury, scientists theorized edaravone could be useful in treatment of lacunar infarcts. Lacunar infarction a type of stroke which affects the brain’s deep structures due to loss of blood flow from occlusion of penetrating arteries. Lunar infaction, and specifically acute lunar infaction, is often seen as a prelude to ischemic strokes.

In February of 2008, research findings were presented at the International Stroke Conference which indicated that edaravone, acting as a free radical scavenger, had proven effects on patients suffering from acute lacunar infarction by improving the clinical outcomes. The research was conducted in Fukuyama, Japan, from samples received from the Mitsubishi Pharma company.

Dr. Ohta and researchers evaluated 124 patients, consecutively, all admitted within 24 hours of the first onset of acute lacunar infarction. For all patients, it was the first incident of lunar infarction, and a retrospection evaluation was conducted. In terms of baseline characteristics, no significant differences were found, and the National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale was utilized to appraise clinical outcome. Sixty-five of the patients received conventional therapy for the disease, while fifty-nine patients received a combination of traditional therapy supplemented with edaravone.

Conclusion of Research

The research concluded that the patients treated with a combination of traditional therapy and edaravone had a significantly higher percentage (91.5%) of patients with a favorable outcome than those patients in the group which did not receive edaravone. The type of conventional therapy used in combination with edaravone had no effect on clinical outcomes. Subsequently, edaravone is now being seriously considered as a supplemental treatment for acute lacunar infarction irregardless of conventional therapy that is being used.

Acute Myocardial Infarction

In a randomized study of 80 patients in a clinical, open-label study, patients who suffered from acute myocardial infarction were selected to receive treatment of edaravone for research on improvement in clinical outcome. This study found that patients treated early onset (before myocardial reperfusion) by the free radical scavenger exhibited better clinical outcome with edaravone treatment due to smaller enzymatic infarcts.

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Due to its wide use as treatment for cerebral ischemia in Japan, a study on Amyotropic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) and the possible benefits of edaravone was conducted. A blind study in which mice afflicted with ALS evaluated various clinical indicators before, during, and after administering edaravone. The mice showed a slower pace of motor skill decline during and following edaravone treatment. The resulting data led researchers to conclude that edaravone was effective in slowing progression of symptoms, as well as the degeneration of neurons, in ALS mice subjects.

Hydroxytyrosol Sources

Hydroxytyrosol is currently believed to be one of the strongest free-radical scavenging polyphenols in use. Hydroxytyrosol is produced by olive, normally the olives used in the production of olive oil. The majority of extracted hydroxytyrosol can be found in the byproduct water produced during the pressing process. The most of the polyphenol can be recovered to process extracts for preventative and medicinal use. Hydroxytyrosol is the main polyphenol, along with other less potent polyphenols, found in olives.

History of Olive Oil

Olive oil, and the rest of the olive tree, has been used for centuries as a highly prized oil, peace offering, trophy and currency for trade. The olive tree itself is believed to date back to approximately twenty million years ago, based on fossilized evidence found in Italy. Commercial and personal cultivation probably began closer to 5000 B.C. in the Mediterranean valley known as the Fertile Crescent.

Throughout the centuries, all the way to approximately 1500 B.C., Greece was the most abundant source of cultivated olive trees. In the region now known as Israel, ancient kings placed great worth on their olive orchards, guarding them fiercely and condemning anyone who harmed their harvest to death. In ancient Mediterranean society, great shipping vessels were built expressly for the trade of olive trees, olives and oil.

Known for its medicinal properties and easily grown in harsh climates, olive trees became one of the most prolific plants in the ancient Mediterranean. Not only were the olives pressed for their essential oil, the branches were used in trade or as rewards for winning competitions.

Olive Branches

Olive branches are most notably seen on images from ancient Greece, adorning the heads of rulers on statues and currency. “Extending the olive branch” became a common saying for promoting peace amongst feuding families. During the first Olympics in ancient Greece, participants competed with only a layer of olive oil adorning their entire body.

In ancient times, olive oil was an essential additional to medicines and cosmetics. Olive trees became so important in trade, commerce, medicine and cosmetics due, in part, to the tree’s almost invincible nature. Olive trees can withstand drought, harsh sun, wet cold and vigorous harvesting all while still growing and producing beneficial fruit.

Temperate growing seasons, entailing mildly warm, dry summers and rainy winters, offer the ideal growing and harvesting conditions for olive trees. The fruit the olive tree bears is pressed into oil, cooked into food, used as a bread dip in Mediterranean dishes and extracted into medicinal compounds and tinctures. Olive oil, and its polyphenol byproducts, is still highly prized as a virtual fountain of youth.

Uses of Hydroxytyrosol and Benefits

Hydroxytyrosol has been researched and studied in connection with the treatment and prevention of several degenerative illnesses. A number of researchers have discovered the hydroxytyrosol compound is best absorbed when taken orally. The nature of the antioxidant has been found to absorb very quickly through the lining of the stomach and into the bloodstream. Once transferred to the circulatory system, hydroxytyrosol collects in the cerebrospinal fluid and provides a number of protections to the cells of the nervous system.

The protected cells have been found to resist the attack of chemicals on brain cells, aiding in the reduction of serious Alzheimer’s disease symptoms. Hydroxytyrosol treatments have also been found to benefit other degenerative nervous disorders, such as Parkinson’s disease. In laboratory experiments conducted by researchers, brain cells exposed to oxidizing chemicals along with hydroxytyrosol. Researchers found the level of energy producing cells was protected by the cells with the hydroxytyrosol, while the control cells were seriously damaged by the oxidizing chemicals.

In addition to neurological protection, hydroxytyrosol has been found to lower the absorption rate of LDL, or bad cholesterol. There have also been studies that suggest hydroxytyrosol can be taken to reduce the risk of cancer and metastasis of existing cancer cells. Researchers introduced the polyphenol hydroxytyrosol to cancer cells found in leukemia and colon cancer. In the study published in the European Journal of Cancer Prevention in 2002, researchers stated the cancer cells were visibly arrested and prevented from expanding into larger tumor areas.

Variations and Best Practices

Hydroxytyrosol is available in several different formats and range in price from under ten dollars to close to thirty, depending on the delivery method. There are online vendors who sell products including hydroxytyrosol, and made exclusively with hydroxytyrosol, which are available year round.

For a natural alternative to expensive facial creams, those looking for firmer younger skin can purchase Hidrox facial cream for around nine dollars. Hidrox includes an exclusively patented extract of hydroxytyrosol and is indicated for use as a night cream for smoother, firmer skin. Hidrox facial cream fights free radicals that can affect the skin and cause unwanted signs of aging on the face. Hidrox is a smooth cream that is quickly absorbed into the skin for protective defense against sun damage and aging.

Those looking to boost their body’s immune system and free radical fight ability can purchase Olivenol, which is a vegetarian tincture that can be taken internally. Tinctures are extracts made from the pulp of plants to refine the beneficial polyphenols and herbs. Tinctures are also easily digested and can be added to regular drinks for a palatable flavor. Olivenol supplement contains hydroxytyrosol extracted directly from the pulp of organic olives and is available online for approximately fifteen dollars. Hydroxytyrosol is easily absorbed through the stomach lining and into the bloodstream and promotes cardiovascular, immune system and cholesterol health.

Other Options

If a tincture is not preferred, there are vitamin type caplets and tablets containing dried extracts with hydroxytyrosol. VegCaps are a dietary supplement that is ingested in the same manner as regular vitamins. Hydroxytyrosol, sold as the brand name Olivenol, is available in 300 mg VegCaps at many online health stores. Pricing for a 60 cap bottle ranges, depending on the supplier, from eighteen to thirty dollars.

While most herbs are recommended in specific dosages for adults only, hydroxytyrosol has shown no adverse side effects when administered to any age group. CreAgri, the maker of Olivenol, conducted scientific studies on subjects who ingested a Mediterranean diet which heavily featured olive oil as its own food group. The manufacturer produces Olivenol by using all natural extraction process with no harmful chemical solvents.

They provide several different variation of Olivenol, depending on the consumer. One 300mg VegCap is equivalent to a recommended four to six ounces of olive oil per day. Olivenol is one of the only herbal supplements to feature hydroxytyrosol as its main compound.

Dosage Instructions

Hydroxytyrosol, ingested in any format, should be done according to the manufacturer’s instructions. No herbal or plant extract supplement should be added to a diet without first consulting a primary or dietary physician.

Although all previous research indicates hydroxytyrosol is completely beneficial to humans, some herbs and supplements can interact badly with prescription or over-the-counter medications. Consulting a physician who has prescribed medication for a specific illness is recommended to avoid any adverse reaction between the prescription and the natural treatment.

Legality and Availability

Hydroxytyrosol is a legally obtainable herbal supplement made from the extract of organically grown olives. There are no chemical additives included in the supplement that would make it illegal in the United States. Hydroxytyrosol can be added as a dietary supplement either through the use of extra virgin olive oil, instead of vegetable oil, while cooking or as a dietary supplement taken in the same manner as a regular vitamin.

Recommended dosages for olive oil, in order to receive the full benefits of the hydroxytyrosol, are four to six ounces per person per day. While this may seem like a small amount, olive oil is high in fat and may affect those who are on a low-fat or fat-free diet. As an alternative to using extra virgin olive oil, consumers can purchase hydroxytyrosol in tincture or capsule format. This method of ingestion may be much preferable to straight olive oil.

Hydroxytyrosol can be purchased at many health food and herbal supplement stores around the world. It can also be found on the internet, either directly from the manufacturer or through various herbal supplement websites. With an unusually long growing season, olives can be harvested in the mild Mediterranean climate almost year round.

Benefits of Hydroxytyrosol

Hydroxytyrosol can provide many health benefits for consumers of all ages. There is no minimum age for good health and a healthy diet. As with any significant diet change or addition of a dietary supplement, one should always consult their primary physician. The makers of Olivenol are also available for consumers who may have questions on changing their diet or adding the healthy benefit of olive oil to their diet as a supplement.

Throughout history, olive trees and the oil their olives produce has proved to be beneficial, not only for the internal human body, but also for the external. Creams made primarily of the pressed extracts of olives have shown to significant increase the outward appearance of aging skin. As one of the strongest free radical fighters known to man, hydroxytyrosol is a natural supplement that should be seriously considered as a healthy addition to any lifestyle.

Selegiline is sold under the trade names Eldepryl and Zelapar for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease, and Emsam for the treatment of major depression.

Selegiline belongs to a group of chemicals that are called monoamine oxidase type B inhibitors, or MAO-B inhibitors. These chemicals inhibit the activity of an enzyme called monoamine oxidase. This enzyme breaks down monoamine neurotransmitters such as dopamine. Neurotransmitters are chemical signals that are used by the nervous system.

If the activity of monoamine oxidase, the enzyme that breaks down these neurotransmitters, is inhibited, then the levels of the neurotransmitters will rise. As more of the neurotransmitter becomes available, then their activity is changed.

At high concentrations, an MAO-B inhibitor can also inhibit monoamine oxidase type A, an alternative form of the enzyme that has similar functions.

Selegiline is an MAO-B inhibitor that prevents the breakdown of dopamine. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that plays a role in numerous types of brain function, including the control of voluntary movements, memory and mood control. By altering the processing of dopamine in the brain, a MAO-B inhibitor such as selegiline can have a significant impact upon the nervous system. These chemicals can therefore be used as medicinal treatments.

Selegiline has been used to treat Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and major depression, all conditions in which dopamine can play an important role.

History

Selegiline was discovered in the 1960s by Joseph Knoll, a scientist who was investigating the physiological differences between people who were high achievers and those who were not. In order to conduct his work, Knoll required a chemical with certain properties, and he asked a chemist, Ecsery to come up with some possible compounds. Of the thirty or so chemicals that Ecsery produced, Knoll chose a chemical he called deprenyl. This chemical in fact had two different forms or enantiomers, one of which was selegiline.

In 1971, Knoll demonstrated that selegiline was a monoamine oxidase inhibitor. By 1975, two other scientists, Walther Birkmeyer and Peter Riederer had proved that it could be used for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. The ability of the drug to treat depression was first recognized by Ervin Varga in 1967, but this research was forgotten until the beginning of the 21st century, when the selegiline transdermal patch was developed as a treatment for depression.

Use

Selegiline has several medicinal uses. It is usually prescribed as a treatment for Parkinson’s disease, but it has also been used as a treatment for Alzheimer’s disease. Selegiline is also used to treat major depression.

Selegiline is an effective treatment for Parkinson’s disease. It is usually prescribed for patients who are also taking a combination of levodopa and carbidopa, which is sold under the trade name Sinemet.

Taking selegiline alongside these medications reduces the dosages of levodopa and carbidopa that are required to be effective. It also prevents the effects of the other drugs from wearing off in between doses, and increases the time period over which levodopa and carbidopa can be used effectively to control the symptoms of the disease.

Additional Usage Options

Selegiline can also be prescribed independently of levodopa and carbidopa treatment. In patients who are taking selegiline alone, the point at which they need to begin treatment with levodopa and carbidopa can be postponed from about a year after diagnosis to approximately 18 months. Selegiline may help to slow the progression of the condition when it is given to patients who have only recently been diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease and are therefore in the early stages.

Although there is as yet no scientific proof that selegiline can help to treat Alzheimer’s disease, it has been used on some patients. It is not an FDA approved treatment for this condition, however.

Selegiline can be used to treat major depressive disorder. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors are usually prescribed to patients only after other attempted treatments have failed. This is because of the serious side effects that such treatments can inflict upon patients. Selegiline is not used as a front-line treatment for depression, but it is a better option than other MOA inhibitors, since it is substantially safer.

Selegiline has also been used in veterinary care as a treatment for cognitive dysfunction and Cushing’s disease in dogs.

Scientific Evidence

The earliest medicinal studies of selegiline focused on the possibility of using it to treat patients with Parkinson’s disease. This research and the consequent use of selegiline in this patient population have demonstrated that it is an effective treatment for this condition. It has also shown that patients who are taking selegiline alongside treatment with levodopa and carbidopa can be effectively treated with reduced doses of levodopa and carbidopa, and are therefore less likely to suffer from the adverse effects that these medications can cause.

Studies have been conducted into the efficacy of selegiline as a treatment for people with Alzheimer’s disease, but the results were inconclusive. A Cochrane review of the evidence determined that there was no evidence that selegiline was an effective treatment for this condition. In some of the studies, there did appear to be some improvement the performance of patients on memory tests when they were given selegiline, but any effect appeared to be very small.

Long Term Effects

The long term efficacy of selegiline in these patients is unknown. It is thought that selegiline could help patients with Alzheimer’s disease since this conditions leads to lower levels of dopamine in the brain, due to a rapid breakdown of dopamine. By inhibiting the enzyme that destroys dopamine, selegiline could help to treat this deficiency. It may then be possible for more dopamine to pass between nerve cells in the brain, which could allow the parts of the brain that control memory, mood and thought to work better.

Selegiline was approved by the FDA as a transdermal treatment for major depression in 2006, after clinical trials showed that it was an effective and safe treatment. The safety findings showed that it was in fact a better option than other monoamine oxidase inhibitors, since it produced fewer side effects and, when taken at a low dose, did not require the same dietary restrictions as other drugs of the same type.

Studies have been conducted to investigate other possible uses for selegiline, as a treatment for ADHD and to help people to quit smoking tobacco and marijuana. There is not, as yet, any reliable scientific evidence of selegiline efficacy in these uses.

Dosage

Selegiline is available in both oral and transdermal forms. The oral forms are used to treat Parkinson’s disease, while the transdermal one is used for treating depression.

Oral selegiline can be taken as either a capsule or a dissolving tablet. Capsules are usually taken twice daily, with both breakfast and lunch. The dissolving tablets are usually taken only once a day, before breakfast, and are not taken with any food or liquid. In fact, with this form, the patient should not drink anything for five minutes before and after taking their dose.

The oral disintegrating tablet is often begun at a lower dose, which the doctor will then increase after six weeks. The dosage of oral selegiline can vary. Tablets are available in a selection of doses. The usual prescription for Parkinson’s disease will begin with a dose of 1.25 milligrams per day, which may be increased after six weeks to a dose of 2.5 milligrams per day.

Patients who are being treated for Parkinson’s disease may have their levodopa and carbidopa dosage reduced when they begin to take selegiline.

Transdermal selegiline is delivered in the form of a patch, similar to those that are used by people who are trying to quit smoking. The patch is simply placed on the skin. It can be attached to the thigh, upper arm or the torso. A new patch is worn every day, and it will continuously release medication into the blood stream over the following 24 hours. The usual dose in this form is 6 milligrams a day, delivered over 24 hours, although the doctor may decide to increase this, if necessary.

Selegiline, like all antidepressants, may cause an increased risk of suicide when given to children or young adults under the age of 24 who are being treated for depression.

Side Effects

The side effects of selegiline can be very severe, as with other monoamine oxidase inhibitors, and for this reason, it is only prescribed as a last resort in cases of depression, when other treatment options have been tried and have not worked.

The mildest side effects that may occur are dizziness, nausea and sickness, indigestion and feeling of anxiousness or agitation. Dizziness and faintness are most likely to occur when rising quickly from a lying position, therefore patients taking this medication should take care to get up slowly. This is particularly likely to be a problem at the beginning of selegiline treatment.

Other side effects include depression, sleepiness, difficulty sleeping, muscle pain and rashes. The dissolving tablets can sometimes cause sores or irritation in the mouth.

The most serious potential side effects of selegiline, which require immediate medical attention, are a severe headache, sweating, nausea or vomiting that occurs suddenly and is very severe, a fast or irregular heart beat, pain in the cheat, difficulty breathing, a sore or stiff neck, uncontrollable shaking, difficulty controlling movements or unusual movements, and hallucinations.

Skin Cancer

There may also be an increased risk of developing skin cancer (melanoma) for people who have Parkinson’s disease and are being treated with selegiline.

Patients who are taking MOAIs usually have to restrict their diets in certain ways, since these drugs can interact with foods that contain high levels of tyramine. These interactions can cause high blood pressure. The sorts of foods that need to be avoided are chocolates, beer and wine (including alcohol free beer and wine), cheeses and pickled foods.

Dosage Considerations

Selegiline, when taken at a low dose of 6 milligrams per day, does not cause this problem, and can therefore be taken without having to restrict the diet. At higher doses, however, interactions can take place, and foods containing tyramine must be avoided.

Selegiline can also interact with some other medications, and it is therefore important that any patient who may be taking selegiline inform their doctor of all medications and other drugs or dietary supplements they may be taking, or which they consider beginning to take while they are using selegiline.

Legal Status

In the US, selegiline is only available with a prescription. It has been approved by the FDA for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease and major depressive disorder, but it may sometimes be prescribed off label for other conditions.

Selegiline is a controlled substance in Japan, and therefore requires a license or prescription for use. This regulation is stronger than that in the US, where selegiline is not a controlled substance, although a prescription is necessary in order to obtain it. The tougher control in Japan may be due to the similarity of the structure of selegiline to that of some illegal stimulants.

Cost

Selegiline is a relatively expensive drug. It can cost upwards of $200 a month, but the cost will depend on the exact brand of drug that is used, the way in which it is to be administered, and the dosage that has been prescribed. It is possible to find cheaper sources of selegiline.

A prescription is needed in order to buy selegiline in any form in the US. It is possible to visit a pharmacy to get the prescription filled, or to order it online for pick up at a local pharmacy. Selegiline is also available for order online, although it is important to choose a reputable source, rather than just buying from the cheapest source.

Glutathione, also referred to as L-Glutathione, L-gammaglutamyl, L-cysteinylglycine or GSH, is a tripeptide naturally occurring in the body. Existing in almost every cell of the body, Glutathione is a small molecule made up of three amino acids: cysteine, glycine, and glutamic acid. Glutathione, however, must be generated within the cells before it can work effectively within the body.

Glutathione is important to intermediary metabolism, immune response, and overall health. Often referred to as the “mother of all antioxidants,” glutathione is vital in aiding the multiplication of lymphocytes, the cells that mediate specific immunity, that occur in the development of an effective immune response. Glutathione is also used in repairing cellular damage from harmful free radicals and reducing oxidative stress. Glutathione is essential in protecting organs such as the liver, the eyes, skin, kidneys, brain, and heart.

History of Glutathione

The discovery of glutathione first was in 1888 by De-Rey-Pailhade, but its role as an antioxidant and detoxifier was not discovered until 30 years later. Glutathione was first isolated by Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins in 1926. Isolating glutathione lead to understanding of this powerful tripeptide and exploration of its many uses. Hopkins made is the discovery and characterization of glutathione that is described in the Journal of Biological Chemistry. He recognized that glutathione was important as a hydrogen acceptor in a number of biochemical reactions. In addition, Hopkins observed the way the body utilized oxygen in relation to glutathione levels.

Glutathione in Foods

Foods that naturally boost glutathione levels are fruits, herbs, vegetables and meats. Vegetables such as broccoli, cauliflower, onions, Brussels sprouts and cabbage, tomatoes, carrots, spinach, and asparagus are good sources of glutathione. Watermelon, avocado, fruits rich in vitamin C like oranges, foods containing vitamin E like almonds all contain positive levels of glutathione. Glutathione is found in raw eggs, fresh, unprocessed meats, garlic, turmeric, and herbs such as cinnamon and cardamom. Brazil nuts are also an effective source of glutathione. Eating one Brazil nut a few times a week is an acceptable way to increase glutathione levels; however, Brazil nuts are high in calories.

Supplements

Unfortunately, there is no evidence of the benefits of taking glutathione as a supplement. Research suggests that glutathione taken orally is not well absorbed within the gastrointestinal tract. Taking supplements such as acetylcysteine, which is an antioxidant that can regenerate glutathione within cells. Another antioxidant to consider is the mineral selenium, which helps to boost glutathione production within the body. Other methods of glutathione supplementation have been found to be somewhat effective. These methods are administering glutathione using nasal sprays, sublingual (under the tongue), patches, and through injections.

It is rumored that actress Suzanne Summers spends over nine hundred dollars a month on glutathione injections to keep her healthy and give her body a youthful appearance. Oral supplements of glutathione are easily available at many places on the Internet such as amazon.com and vitacost.com and can also be found in retail stores such as GNC or walmart. The cost depends on the amount of capsules and milligrams of glutathione; at GNC a 50 mg bottle of 50 tablets is sold for $9.99. Mineral supplements such as selenium are available on the Internet at websites such as drugstore.com and herbal remedy.com for approximately $10 for 100 tablets.

Selenium is also available for purchase at many retail stores including walmart, walgreens, and kmart. Undenatured, or non-heated, whey protein is also high in glutathione. There have been some studies that have shown that the glutathione found in whey protein can be absorbed by the body. Whey protein is a commonly found product that is sold at retail stores such as walmart or Target and online at websites like drugstore.com. Whey protein varies in prices but one can expect to pay $15.00 for a two-pound container of whey protein powder. One typically consumes whey powder in shakes.

There are many different flavors of whey protein powder such as chocolate, vanilla, and cookies and cream and it is very soluble, mixing easily into a healthy shake. There are no documented side effects of taking whey protein supplements.

Dosage

Oral glutathione is taken in ranges of 50 mg to 600 mg, when inhaled through nasal sprays the dosage of glutathione is 600 mg twice a day, when used as an injection a dosage of 600 mg once a day is recommended by most physicians. If taking an oral glutathione supplement, it is important to only take the dose recommended on the instructions and only take supplements from a very reputable manufacturer, as these supplements are not closely regulated.

Controversy

There is debate about the actual benefits of glutathione supplements in any form: oral, inhaled, or injected. Many scientists discount any supplemental product of glutathione sold, saying that the antioxidant cannot be absorbed into the body from these supplements. They recommend increasing your diet in foods naturally rich in glutathione. Several doctors agree that it is simply impossible to increase circulating glutathione to a clinically beneficial extent by consuming glutathione supplements. Those who are attracted to a more holistic approach to healthcare tend to disagree with those physicians, citing personal anecdotes and experiences as proof of the abundant benefits of glutathione supplements. Vitamin companies also boast the benefits of glutathione supplements. Many companies claim that their products decrease signs of aging, help to clear skin of imperfections or to whiten the skin, improve the immune system, reverse damage from smoking, reverse damage due to aging, and increase energy.

Side Effects

Generally, glutathione is said to be free of side effects. Considered safe by the Food and Drug Administration, no reports of harmful side effects have been published in any medical journals. There is one reported side effect has been contributed to glutathione, which is skin whitening. Skin whitening occurs when glutathione is taken in increased doses by modifying conversion of eumelanin (dark/brown/yellow pigmentation) to phaeomelanin (reddish white pigmentation). Many dermatologists use glutathione as a skin whitener and it has been proven to be very safe and effective.

Levels of Glutathione in the Body

One of the main causes of law levels of glutathione are free radicals. An increased presence of free radicals in the body can cause oxidative stress. Low levels of glutathione deficiency contribute to oxidative stress, which plays a key role in aging.

Oxidative stress can also worsen many diseases which include Alzheimer’s disease, liver disease, Parkinson’s disease, cystic fibrosis, cancer sickle cell anemia, HIV and AIDS, diabetes, and heart attack. The aging process also causes lower levels of glutathione in the body. By age 20, the body begins to lose between 10-15% of glutathione per decade.

It is important to increase consumption of foods rich in glutathione after age 20. Other ways glutathione is decreased in the body can be from pollution, stress, exposure to poison such as pesticides, and birth control pills and hormone therapy. The higher glutathione levels are the healthier the individual is. High levels of glutathione help to rid the body of toxins and boost the immune system as well as the metabolism and energy levels.

Many dermatologists recommend eating foods high in glutathione to help reduce the signs of aging and improve skin clarity. Raising levels of glutathione in the body has an impact on almost every disease and sickness. An increased presence of glutathione can help to reduce symptoms of and prevent colds and the flu, can increase energy levels, and can slow memory loss.

Uses

People of any age and lifestyle can benefit from increased levels of glutathione in the body. Glutathione contains so many healthy effects and no known negative side effects; because of this, most doctors and nurses encourage people to increase foods rich in this powerful antioxidant in their diet. Scientists agree that consuming increased amounts of glutathione early in life promotes longevity and reduce the potential of contracting and severity of chronic diseases. By neutralizing and repairing the damage done by free radicals, glutathione is proven to help slow the aging process.

Many doctors are further researching the benefits of high levels of glutathione for several conditions including Alzheimer’s disease, cancer, heart disease, osteoarthritis, Parkinson’s disease, cornea disorders, kidney dysfunction, liver disorders, and immunodepression that occurs in diseases such as AIDS. There is increased evidence suggesting that cellular redox, or reduction-oxidation, status is key in regulating viral replication and infectivity; glutathione helps to maintain a healthy cellular redox status. Glutathione has been proved to reduce flu symptoms by one third and increased levels of glutathione have shown a reduced chance of contacting the flu.

Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s

In Parkinson’s disease, research has revealed that oxidative stress and free radicals add to the deterioration of brain tissue. Low levels of glutathione have been found in those suffering from severe damaged brain tissue due to Parkinson’s disease. High levels of glutathione can slow the progression of brain tissue damage. Memory loss associated with Alzheimer’s disease has been proven to slow with an elevated level of glutathione in the body. Alzheimer’s disease is characterized by degeneration of brain nerve cells and shrinkage of brain tissue. While it is unclear whether oxidative damage is a cause or merely an effect of Alzheimer’s, glutathione has been proven to slow down the progression of the disease.

Selenium is a naturally occurring mineral that, when combined with proteins in the body, becomes a powerful antioxidant. It helps strengthen the body in many ways. The most important is how it affects the immune system. By building up the immune system it allows the body to fight off many diseases, such as cancer. Selenium is found in a multitude of food sources and in supplements making it accessible to everyone.

Where Can You Find It

Selenium is a trace mineral found in the soil and is absorbed into plant life. This absorption is key to creating healthy levels of the mineral in food sources. The United States has a high concentrations of Selenium in the soil. Some countries, such as China, have very low concentrations. These areas lead to deficient populations because most eat only locally grown foods. They will need to supplement their diet or eat foods grown in Selenium rich soil. The United States has a well established system of cross distribution which allows for those living in lower level areas to still have access to richer foods.

Good sources of this mineral are corn, wheat, rice, soybeans, Brazil nuts and walnuts. In fact, Brazil nuts have such a concentrated amount of Selenium that intake should be limited. In addition to the plant life, animals that feed off these plants also produce foods rich in Selenium. Beef, chicken, turkey, kidney, liver and fish are all good sources of Selenium. These animals also produce milk, eggs, and cheese rich in this mineral. Therefore, a nutrient rich soil becomes a constant source for good health.

How It Affects the Body

The natural process of the human body includes the metabolism of oxygen. This process causes the formation of bi-products, or free radicals, which can weaken the immune system, lead to chronic diseases and quicken the effects of aging. Selenium is an antioxidant that helps the body to fight against the effects of these free radicals.

This strengthens the immune system and allows the body to function properly. This is the key factor that makes this mineral such an important tool in protecting and supporting our bodies.

Inadequate amounts of Selenium in the body puts additional stress on its systems and increases its chances of falling victim to certain diseases. There are three specific diseases that have been directly linked to Selenium deficiencies.

Keshan Disease affects children, causing an enlarged heart and poor heart function. Kashin-Beck Disease causes Osteoarthropathy, a disease affecting the bones and joints. Myxedematous Endemic Cretinism is a deficiency that leads to mental retardation. These reflect the importance of adequate levels of this important nutrient in all ages and stages of life.

The Disease Fighter

Cancer

Selenium, because of its antioxidant property, has been used in fighting off many diseases and help regulate organ function. Tests have shown it to lower incidence and death from certain cancers. A ten year study showed that men taking 200 mg of Selenium per day had fifty percent less chance of having prostate cancer.

Another study done by the National Cancer Institute found that the return of precancerous colon polyps after surgery was reduced greatly when the patient took antioxidants like Selenium.

There is also evidence that it prevents Hepatitis from evolving into liver cancer. There is ongoing research that plans to substantiate claims that cancer patients with higher levels of Selenium have lower death rates.

HIV and AIDS

Selenium is not just a cancer fighter. Additional studies have discovered many more ways it strengthens the human body, particularly helping patients struggling with various diseases. HIV patients that maintain healthy levels of this nutrient have lower death rates than those with weak levels. It is believed that the already depleted immune system is further weakened by the low levels of Selenium in dying patients.

Arthritis

Arthritis sufferers have a similar problem. Most arthritis patients have low levels of Selenium, resulting in a weaker immune system which can trigger arthritic symptoms.

Heart Disease

It is also believed that healthy amounts of the mineral may help prevent heart disease by limiting the oxidation of LDL, or bad, cholesterol.

Diabetes

Findings have recently been released after a nine year study of older men and blood sugar metabolism. The men whose Selenium levels were high had less problems metabolizing sugar. This adds possible prevention of the onset of diabetes to the list of what this antioxidant can do for the human body.

Purifies the Body

Selenium is also a purifier for our organ systems. It protects us against the presence of unhealthy metals in the body, such as the Mercury ingested with fish and seafood. It is believed that the mineral binds to these metals and weaken the negative impact on the body and its systems. This does more than defend the body, but also allows for the combination of the mineral with the omega-3 fatty acids found in fish and seafood to be used by the body without negative side effects.

Fertility

Fertility can also be strengthened by healthy levels of Selenium. Low levels of this nutrient have been found in men with low sperm count. It is believed that the antioxidant helps to aid in sperm formation. It is also believed to prevent chromosome breakage, reducing the number of birth defects and miscarriages.

Reduces Swelling

Healthy levels have also been found to reduce edema, or swelling, after surgery and during pregnancy. New studies are being done to expand on new ways Selenium may improve our health.

Supplement Your Diet

Selenium supplements are found on many store shelves and through the internet. They are considered safe and effective. In fact, the Food and Drug Administration has allowed the manufacturers to state on the bottles that the mineral may prevent certain cancers. There are various dosage levels and can be found in tablet or liquid form.

Supplements that combine Selenium with other nutrients, especially Vitamin E, are very popular. It is believed that the Selenium is even more effective when combined with Vitamin E. The cost is reasonable, with prices typically lower through online health stores. Health focused stores also tend to have a wider selection available.

Those that benefit most from these supplements are people living in areas known for low Selenium levels and sufferers of chronic disease, particularly those that involve the immune system. Patients with gastrointestinal disorders, such as Crohn’s disease, should also supplement their diet. When the gastrointestinal tract is not working properly it does not absorb all the nutrients.

Taking additional supplements will better guarantee that the body is getting what it needs. Anyone suffering from these types of issues should discuss the need for supplements with their physician.

Daily Allowance

The recommended daily allowance of Selenium varies based on age. The dosage remains the same for men and women. However, there is a required increase during pregnancy and while breastfeeding. The average adult should be ingesting about 200 micrograms a day. Health issues, such as low absorption rates due to gastrointestinal issues, may demand higher amounts. Higher levels should always be based on a doctor’s order to prevent toxic levels.

Concerns Over Toxic Levels

It is possible to ingest too much Selenium. For example, there is some discussion that high levels of Selenium may lead to hypertension. Dosages beyond that in a typical multivitamin should be physician directed due to the possible toxic threat. Toxic levels are rare in the United States, but can occur. The level found in most food sources are very safe.

The amounts in Brazil nuts are incredibly high, but do not pose a problem if eaten in amounts considered normal for nuts. The most common source of Selenium toxicity is in areas surrounding mountain coal mining sites. Coal has a high concentration of Selenium.

The soil surrounding the coal also has high levels. The runoff during mining of this surrounding soil and the ash from burned coal have been found in nearby streams and rivers. This affects wildlife and water sources. People may suffer symptoms of toxicity if safe water levels are not maintained or by eating affected plant life, wild life and fish.

The symptoms for toxic Selenium levels are an upset gastrointestinal tract, hair loss, fatigue, irritability, mild nerve damage, white, blotchy nails, and breath with a garlic odor. Symptoms normally occur in five to ten days and could last up to a few weeks once the amount is lowered to a healthy level. Long term toxic levels will damage the circulatory system, nervous system, kidneys and liver. There is not an antidote for selenium poisoning. A simple blood test can be done to verify if Selenium levels are healthy.

Wide Availability

Selenium is found in multiple food sources and easily available supplements. It is considered a powerful antioxidant and is known for protecting the body by strengthening the immune system. Studies have shown how it prevents certain diseases and has decreased relapses and deaths in patients. Scientists are continuing to gather evidence supporting their theories on the additional health benefits Selenium has on the human body.