Conditions

What Are Varicose Veins

Varicose veins, also known as varicosity and varicosis, are veins that have become twisted and engorged due to the collection of an abnormal amount of blood. Varicose veins are sometimes painful and can happen to any veins but most often affect the veins of the legs and feet, which is the result of walking and standing upright, increasing pressure on the veins in your lower body.

Symptoms of Varicose Veins

For some people, the only symptom of varicose veins is visual, as pain does not always, or even usually, accompany the condition. Signs of varicosity include veins that are a dark blue or purple color and that are visible beneath the skin. The veins will also appear to be twisted or misshapen and engorged or bulging. You may also see a mild swelling of the ankles, and possibly some skin discoloration.

For some sufferers of varicose veins, pain will accompany their visual symptoms. There will be an aching or heavy feeling to the affected area. Swelling, muscle cramping, or a burning sensation may occur, which can be worse after a prolonged period of sitting or standing. You may also experience a persistent itch over the affected veins. In more severe cases, you may develop skin ulcers near your ankle. This is a symptom that should not be ignored and medical treatment should be sought. Varicosity symptoms tend to worsen over time, and women who are menstruating may experience heightened symptoms of their varicosity, as increased progesterone levels contribute to varicose veins.

You may be able alleviate some of your symptoms with self-care: elevating the legs, wearing compressed stockings, and exercise all work to ease painful symptoms and may prevent worsening symptoms.

Causes of Varicose Veins

The purpose of your veins is to return blood to the heart, which will be recirculated throughout your body via your arteries before the process is repeated. There are valves within your veins assisting in this process. The valves open to allow the blood to flow back to your heart, and close again to stop the blood from returning. Assisting in this process are also muscle contractions to help move the flow of blood, and elasticity in the vein walls. When any of these processes cease to function correctly, varicose veins may result.

There are a few reasons normal vein functioning might cease. The valves in your veins may be congenitally weak. In other words, they may have been defective since birth. Varicose veins are thought to be a hereditary trait, so this weakness may be genetic. Age also increases the likelihood of developing varicose veins. As your body ages, your veins may lose some of their elasticity and as a result become misshapen. Age may also weaken the valves in your veins, allowing the blood that should be flowing toward the heart to back up and pool within the vein. When this happens, the vein becomes swollen and twisted. The blue appearance of the veins is due to the fact that the blood trapped in the vein is deoxygenated (oxygenated blood flows through the arteries to nourish the body, whereas veins carry back the deoxygenated blood to the heart).

The most common secondary cause of varicose veins is pregnancy. Factors contributing to pregnancy-related varicosity are numerous. First, there is an increase in the volume of blood in pregnant women, which is coupled with a decrease in blood flow between legs and pelvis. The purpose is for greater fetal support, but one side effect may be varicose veins. The second contributing factor is the extra weight a pregnant woman has in her uterus, which exerts extra pressure on her legs. Third, changes in the levels of the hormones estrogen and progesterone work to relax the vein walls, further contributing to varicosity. Typically, varicose veins that develop during pregnancy improve without medical intervention within a few months of delivery.

Risk Factors of Varicose Veins

While a definitive cause for varicose veins is unknown, experts agree that certain factors increase your risk of developing varicose veins. Age is the greatest indicator. Between the ages of 30 and 70 you stand a greater chance of experiencing varicosity. This is due to the increased wear and tear on the veins as you age, which affects blood flow. Your veins have to fight gravity to return the blood to your heart, and when they are weakened with age – both the walls of the vein and the valves blocking blood from flowing backward – it may cause the blood to back up and collect in the vein.

Sex is another indicator of increased risk of varicosity. Women are more likely than men to develop varicose veins, at nearly double the rate as men do. Hormonal changes during pregnancy, menstruation and menopause may be the contributing factor here. The female hormones (estrogen and progesterone) work to relax the vein walls which reduces their effectiveness. Genetics also play a role. If a family member has varicose veins, you are more likely to develop them as well.

Added strain to your body may also increase your risk of developing varicose veins. Obesity adds pressure to your legs and therefore your veins. Certain chronic conditions also add a strain to your veins: constipation, an enlarged prostate resulting in urinary retention, chronic coughing, and any other condition which may cause you to strain for prolonged periods of time and therefore increase the pressure on your veins. Prolonged standing also places a greater strain on the legs and may lead to varicose veins, especially if the valves have been weakened by age, pregnancy, obesity, or prior leg injuries or surgeries.

Prevention Tips

Researchers have been unable to definitely say what causes varicose veins, which makes the question of prevention tricky. In addition, there is no guarantee against developing varicose veins, however carefully you follow prevention techniques. There are a number of options, though, to prevent varicose veins, or prevent current varicosity from worsening.

Improving overall health will help prevent varicose veins, especially improving circulation and muscle tone. By exercising, maintaining a healthy weight, and eating a diet high in fiber and low in sodium, you will improve your circulation. Toning your muscles also assists in this, as muscle contractions help move the flow of blood in your veins, so keep your legs fit via walking, bicycling, or climbing stairs. Moving your legs on a regular basis will also help. If you are required to sit for long periods of time, periodically flexing your ankle and calf muscles – at least a few times every hour – will help pump the blood through your legs. To do this, simply pump your foot up and down, mimicking the walking motion, at least 10 times per leg every hour.

Another technique to prevent varicose veins is to elevate the legs, making sure your feet are in a higher position than your heart. If your job requires long periods of standing or sitting, sleep with your feet elevated, propping them with cushions to keep them elevated above heart level. You may also want to wear compression stockings, a kind of support hose that provide an outer pressure that may improve circulation and increase blood flow. Compression stockings should especially be worn during long periods of sitting, whether at work or during long plane or car rides.

There are avoidance techniques you may practice as well. Avoid prolonged periods of time standing or sitting. Also, you should avoid high heels which put undue pressure on your legs. Tight clothing or hosiery, which restricts blood flow and disrupts circulation, should also be avoided to help prevent varicose veins. You should also avoid excess heat on your legs. Heat contributes to the swelling in varicose veins, so avoid hot tubs and baths that are too hot.

Testing for Varicose Veins

The first step in diagnosing varicose veins is a physical exam. The physical exam will include your doctor looking at your legs while you are standing to check for any swelling. Your doctor may also ask for a description of your symptoms, such as any pain you may be experiencing in relation to your varicose veins. Generally speaking, varicose veins are diagnosed strictly through these visual means and there are no other tests necessary to confirm a diagnosis of varicose veins. However, your doctor may decide the need for other tests is indicated based on any complications you may experience from your varicose veins, such as blood clots.

An ultrasound is the most common test requested. This is a noninvasive procedure and is used to ensure your veins are functioning normally and there is no clotting. An ultrasound technician will usually perform this test. The technician will apply a warm gel to the area, which helps to produce a clean picture for the technician. He or she will then rub a small device called a transducer against your skin, over the gel, which sends images of your veins to a monitor so that the technician and your doctor may check for vascular health.

Treatment

Home Remedies

The greatest treatments for varicose veins are self-care such as the above described preventative measures. Topping the list are elevating your legs, exercise and diet, and compression stockings. Exercise will improve your circulation and overall health. Work with your doctor to determine the appropriate level of activity for you. Following a healthy diet not only will help you shed any extra pounds adding stress to your veins, but a low-sodium, high-fiber diet prevents water retention and constipation, both of which contribute to swelling and varicosity.

Compression stockings are your best bet for self-care, and should be tried before seeking medical treatment. These support hose apply constant, uniform pressure to your legs, improving circulation. They are worn all day and come in varying “strengths” of compression, including prescription strength, but don’t necessarily need to be tight, just strong. They can be bought at most pharmacies, but before purchasing your pair, use a tape measure to measure yourself according to the chart you’ll find on the package to ensure you buy the right size.

Compression stockings may be difficult for certain people to put on, so if you have arthritis or weak hands, there are devices available to help you put on these stockings. These self-care remedies are very effective, with little to no risk of side effects. If your varicose veins are pregnancy related the condition will typically improve within three months of delivery.

Medical Treatment Options

If self-care does not work and your varicose veins have become painful, or if the area is swollen or tender or discolored, or if a rash appears, you need to seek medical attention. There are a number of medical treatment options available to treat varicose veins. Be sure to research your choice carefully, and check with your primary doctor before having any treatments performed.

Sclerotherapy

The most common medical treatment for varicose veins. A solution is injected into the affected vein, which triggers a swelling of the vein walls, causing them to stick together and finally shut. This stops blood flow and the vein turns to scar tissue and eventually fades. The same vein may need to be injected more than once, depending on the severity of the varicosity.

This is an effective treatment when done correctly and the treatment can be performed in your doctor’s office. There are various possible side effects, including stinging, cramping, redness, skin ulcers, and bruising at the injection site. Discoloration may appear around the treated vein, though it usually disappears. The vein may also become swollen or develop bits of coagulated blood, which is not dangerous. Applied heat and aspirin should reduce swelling, antibiotics may be prescribed for any infection, and the bits of coagulated blood can be drained.

Electrodessication

This is very similar to sclerotherapy, but instead of sealing off the vein with the injected solution, an electrical current is used. Possible side effects are also very similar.

Laser Surgery

The laser projects a strong stream of light directly onto the vein, causing it to fade and disappear. This procedure is very accurate when done correctly and only damages the affected area. This noninvasive procedure does not include any needles or incisions, and the patient will only feel a slight pinch when the laser hits the patient’s skin, which can be soothed by cooling the skin. The treatment takes 15 to 20 minutes and will need to be repeated two to five times, depending on the level of varicosity the patient is experiencing. Normal activity may be resumed immediately following treatment. Side effects may include some redness or swelling to the treatment area, but these typically last only a couple of days. Also, the patient my experience some discoloration of the affected area, which should disappear after one to two weeks.

Closure

Closure involves placing a catheter into the vein, heating the tip of the catheter, and then removing the catheter. As the heated catheter moves through the vein, the vein collapses and seals itself shut. The patient’s healthy veins should then restore blood flow. This surgery is typically used on very large veins, and the only side effect is bruising.

Ligation or Stripping

This is typically an outpatient procedure (occurring in an operating room) and requires either a local or general anesthesia. It entails tying shut the affected vein and removing it through a series of small incisions. Ligation or stripping is usually performed on surface veins and removing them does not negatively effect circulation. As with any procedure, if a general anesthesia is used, the patient runs the risk of cardiac or respiratory complications. As in sclerotherapy, blood coagulation may occur, but rarely is a problem as the collected blood settles on its own. At the incision points infection, inflammation and redness may occur, and possibly permanent scars. Nerve damage is another possible side effect, as nerve branches are difficult to avoid in this surgery. A deep vein blood clot is the most serious possible side effect of this procedure, and there is a risk the clot could travel to the heart or lungs.

Ambulatory Phlebotomy

In this procedure, a special light is used to locate the varicose vein. Next, small incisions are made in the skin and surgical hooks are used to pull the vein out of the leg. This is generally an outpatient procedure that requires anesthesia to the incision area. The most common side effects are bruising and mild scarring and patients may return to normal activity the following day.

Endoscopic Vein Surgery

This surgery is used to treat more severe instances of varicosity that include skin ulcers. Anesthesia is required and the procedure is approximately one to two hours in length. A skinny camera is inserted into you leg to enable the surgeon to see your veins and then close the varicosities. Next the veins are removed through small incision in the skin. Activity must be kept to a minimum for a couple of days after surgery, and may slowly return to normal activity over the next few weeks.

Alternative Medicine

Horse chestnut seed extract is an herbal remedy that may be used to treat swelling and discomfort associated with varicose veins. It is used in Europe to treat chronic venuous insufficiency. CVI may include leg swelling or itching, varicose veins, leg pain, and skin ulcers. Side effects of horse chestnut seed extract are no different than with placebos. However, there is an increased risk of low blood sugar, so consult with your doctor before taking and use with caution if you are a diabetic.

Resources

National Institute of Medicine

Emedicinehealth.Com

MedicineNet.Com

Breast cancer is a disease that can strike fear in the heart of any woman, and with good reason. It is the second most prevalent kind of cancer, after lung cancer. According to the American Cancer Society, there were about 194,280 new cases of breast cancer in the U.S. last year. This is including 1,910 cases of breast cancer in men. Of these new cases they expect 40,610, including that of 440 men, to be fatal. Although the survival rate for breast cancer is better than ever, these are still staggering numbers.

What is Breast Cancer?

Breast cancer is any cancer involving breast tissue, but it can take various forms and stages of severity. Most common are those involving the milk ducts or the lobules that supply milk to the ducts. Cancers found in the milk ducts are called ductal carcinomas. Those found in the lobules are called lobular carcinomas. Some cancers are slow growing and others are extremely aggressive. They are rated from Stage I to Stage IV, depending on progression and seriousness. Some are caused by environmental factors and others by genetic tendencies. Survival rates vary greatly, depending on the combination of factors, in each individual case. Treatments also vary depending on these factors.

Risk Factors for Brease Cancer

There are many conditions that increase your risk for breast cancer, but do keep in mind that having one or more of these risk factors does not mean you will contract cancer. It comes down to the fact that information is power. If you are aware of a risk for something, you can take steps to control those factors that put you at greater risk.

That said here are some risk factors to consider:

• Being a woman. Although it is possible for a man to have breast cancer, as a woman, your risk is greater.
• Growing older. Your chances of getting a breast cancer increases as you age.
• Overweight. Those extra pounds can increase your risk of breast cancer.
• Waiting to have a child. A woman who has her first child after age 35 is at increased risk.
• Not having children. More menstrual periods in your lifetime means a greater chance of developing breast cancer.
• Heredity. If a close family member has had breast cancer, there is more of a chance that you will get it too.
• Cancer survivor. If you have had cancer in one breast the chances are greater that you will contract it in the other side.
• Early periods. Beginning menstruation before 12 years old can also increase risk.
• Later menopause. Beginning menopause after 55 years old also may increase risk.
• Hormone replacement therapy. Some combinations of estrogen and progesterone may have an effect on
• breast cancer risks.
• Imbibing in alcohol. Drinking may increase risk.
• Exposure to radiation at a young age. Radiation treatments in the chest area as a child or teen may increase risk.

Breast Cancer Symptoms

Often, there are no clear symptoms pointing to breast cancer. That is why it is so important to be aware and be tested regularly.

Some common tests for detecting breast cancer:

Mammogram

Although researchers are constantly searching for better ways to detect breast cancer the mammogram is still the most recommended. Recently the United States Preventive Services Task Force changed the guidelines concerning how often a mammogram is needed. Their recommendation is that an average risk woman between the ages of 50 to 74 be screened every 2 years.

MRI

May be used to detect hard to find cancer

Ultrasound

This may be used in some cases especially to determine if a lump is a solid mass or liquid filled.

Biopsy

A biopsy involves removing a bit of tissue or liquid to be screened for malignancy.

Self Exams

Monthly self exams aren’t stressed the way were a few years ago, they help you be familiar with your own body and to detect any possible changes from month to month. Watch for any changes in the breast area, including the obvious, finding a lump or thickness, different from the surrounding tissue. Check for changes in appearance, as well. These could include a change in size or shape of the breast, dimpling of the skin on the breast, peeling of the skin on the nipple or if the nipple becomes inverted (sinks in). Gently squeeze the nipple and check for any discharge. If you notice changes talk to your doctor immediately.

Common Breast Cancer Treatments

Surgery

Often surgery is recommended to remove the cancerous tissue. The extent of the surgery can range anywhere from a lumpectomy, removing only the cancerous lump itself, to a radical mastectomy, removing all the breast tissue and perhaps even the lymph nodes.

As with any surgery, there are risks involved including the possibility of infection, scarring and slow wound healing. In addition there may be some sensitivity or numbness from damaged nerves caused by the removal of surrounding tissue.

Chemotherapy

A systemic therapy, this simply means that it affects the entire body. Chemotherapy bombards the body with strong chemicals that destroy the cancer cells at the original site and any that may have spread to other areas. Occasionally, chemotherapy is given before surgery to shrink or eliminate the cancer with or without additional treatment.

Because of the way chemotherapy targets the fast growing cancer cells it also affects other more quickly growing cells in the body such as hair, nails and blood cells.

Side effects vary depending on the type of medicine you are getting and the dosage and can even be different from one person to another. Common side effects include fatigue, anemia, hair loss, infection, nausea and vomiting, nerve problems with hands or feet, cough or sore throat, things may taste or smell odd, weight loss or gain, skin, mouth or vaginal dryness, and lines on or color changes in the nails.

Make sure to tell your doctor of any changes or discomforts you may be experiencing because there may be ways to alleviate your symptoms and help you through a difficult transition.

You may also want to check with a nutritionist who has experience working with cancer patients. There are many foods and supplements that can help build you up and lessen some of the undesirable effects of the chemo. For example: You will need plenty of good quality protein to help your body repair itself and plenty of fruits and vegetables to help your body function at peak. Some people find a nutient dense addition like wheat grass makes them feel better overall. Be sure and check with your doctor before trying anything different.

Radiation therapy (radiotherapy)

Radiation therapy is a very, targeted treatment preformed by a radiation oncologist. It pinpoints the area in which the cancer is located and destroys the abnormal cells. It is used to reduce the risk of a recurrence of the cancer in the affected area.

Side effects are, generally, limited to the treatment site and vary from person to person. Reaction usually come on slowly and develops over the course of the treatment. These side effects may include itching, burning and redness of the skin in the area of treatment.

Immune targeted therapies

These are therapies used to target specific characteristics of the cancer cells and to keep them from having the means they need to thrive.

• Herceptin keeps the cancer cells from receiving chemical signals that encourage them to grow
• Avastin blocks the growth of blood vessels that feed the cancer cells
• Tykerb blocks proteins that promote uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells

Preventing Breast Cancer

Be aware of the environmental causes of breast cancer.

There is no doubt we live in a dangerous world. There are many chemicals in everyday use that can affect our susceptibility to certain cancers. Many unknown effects are caused by different types of chemicals and toxins and need further study to be proven, but in the meantime, there are steps you can take to protect yourself from possible hazards. These include limiting exposure in and around the home.

Go natural whenever possible. Many non-toxic household cleaners can be purchased or made from natural ingredients such as vinegar, lemon juice, baking soda and salt. Be aware of what ingredients are in any chemicals used in yard and garden and read all instructions to use them safely. Do not expose children to them and stay away from them yourself, if pregnant. A little prevention is fairly easy and can make a great deal of difference in maintaining a healthy life.

Note that some chemicals that mimic estrogen are commonly found in plastics used for packaging and food storage and are particularly conducive to promoting breast cancer, so it is best to avoid microwaving in any type of plastic to limit this risk factor.

You can find more information about toxins in our environment at Envirocancer.cornell.edu

Watch Your Diet

As with any disease or health problem, the best cure for breast cancer is to avoid getting it in the first place. There are many variables that each of us has control over that can lower the risk of developing any type of cancer. One place to start is with what we eat.

Logically, we all know we should eliminate the “junk” foods from our diet, but perhaps something a bit more drastic is in order. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (AJCN) reports that the incidence of breast cancer in women who follow a traditional Japanese or Mediterranean diet is much lower than in those who follow a traditional American diet.

The emphasis on vegetables, fruits, whole grains, fish and good fats is an excellent and tasty way to prevent health issues and is in sharp contrast to a typical American diet filled with nutritionally empty calories, heavily processed grains, large amounts of sugar, red meat and harmful fats. The very components so prevalent in this type of diet are what keep us sick and in pain.

Exercise Regularly

Obesity and a sedentary life style have been attributed to a higher risk of breast cancer as well as many other health problems.

Know your Heredity History

Although, we don’t have a say in controlling our heredity, we do have the option of taking the best care of our bodies that we possible can. This includes eating and exercising properly and limiting our exposure to environmental toxins. These steps, alone, can go a long way in limiting the chances of contracting breast cancer

What’s Next?

If you are already in a struggle with breast cancer, remember that there have been many others who have not only survived the fight, but who have actually thrived because of it and come out healthier for what they have learned. You can be the next success story.

Most of us feel extremely lucky if our family members make it through the winter without succumbing to any ailments. That’s because along with the first frosty days, winter often brings the flu, colds, coughs and sore throats.

It’s no coincidence that increased sickness comes with decreasing temperatures. When temperatures begin to fall, the body naturally tends to work in overdrive to regulate the normal body temperature. This cold-weather stress compromises the circulation and the immune systems.

Another reason that people tend to get sick in winter is the fact that they spend more time indoors, in close quarters. When people are inside they are more likely to spread germs to each other. This is especially true for children who may not be that diligent about preventing the spread of germs.

There is also compelling evidence now that suggests that some viruses spread more easily through dry air. The air in an indoor environment is often very dry in the winter, especially when people have their heaters turned on. So, it’s not necessarily the cold that makes an individual sick. Instead, the cold weather just makes it easier for viruses to spread. It also makes people with compromised immune and circulatory systems more susceptible to germs.

The Flu

The flu, or influenza, is one of the most-feared winter ailments, especially due to new mutations of the flu in recent years. The flu affects 5 to 20 percent of people every year. Each year about 200,000 people end up going to the hospital because of the flu.

Symptoms of the Flu

Flu symptoms generally come on suddenly, unlike cold symptoms. Flu symptoms include:

• High fever
• Aches and pains, especially in the joints as well as in the muscles around the eyes
• A general feeling of weakness
• Warm skin and watery eyes
• Headache
• Dry, unproductive cough
• Watery discharge from nose

Causes of the flu

The flu is a virus that spreads through tiny drops of fluid. When someone with the flu sneezes, coughs, talks, or touches their nose or mouth and then something else they can easily pass the flu on to others. In fact, a person can pass the virus on even before they experience the initial symptoms of the flu.

There are three strains of the flu – A, B and C. Types A and B typically cause the flu outbreaks that come with the onset of winter. Type C is more rare and has never been linked to any major flu epidemic.

Risk Factors

Age is a risk factor – infants, young children and people over the age of 50 are more likely to become infected with the flu. Those with chronic disorders, such as heart, kidney or lung disease are also more susceptible to the virus. Pregnant women are also at risk. People that work in a health-care facility, nursing home, or that have regular contact with young children also are more likely to come into contact with the flu virus.

Prevention

The flu vaccine is widely available and it comes in two forms – the “flu shot” and the nasal-spray vaccines, also known as the “flu mist.”
According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention, the flu shot is approved for use in individuals 6 months old and older. It is okay for people with chronic health conditions to receive the flu shot. The flu shot is an inactivated vaccine that contains killed virus.

The nasal-spray flu vaccine is approved for use in people ages 2-49 years old. Unlike the flu shot, the nasal-spray flu vaccine is made from live but weakened flu viruses that do not cause the flu.

Each year, the viruses that are in these flu vaccines change slightly as scientists estimate what types and strains of viruses will be prevalent in that year. For this reason, some years the vaccines are more effective than others. The seasonal flu vaccines, however, do not protect against the H1N1 strain of the flu.

Both of these vaccines work by exposing the human body to the flu virus. The body then builds up antibodies to the virus.

Practicing Good Hygiene

Good hygiene is essential in preventing the spread of most illnesses, including the flu. Washing your hands well is very important since the flu virus is often spread by direct contact. Use soap and warm water and scrub vigorously for 15 to 20 seconds. If soap and water is not available, a commercial hand sanitizer can be used instead.

Boost your Immune System

Eat right, avoid alcohol and smoking, exercise, drink a lot of water and get an appropriate amount of sleep.

Diet is important for general well-being. Eat dark green, red and yellow fruits and vegetables. Aim for 5 to 9 servings of fresh fruits and vegetables per day. The phytonutrients in these fruits and vegetables help to strengthen your immune system, resulting in an increased immunity to the flu virus. Other immune-system boosting foods include raw or lightly cooked garlic, which has strong antiviral properties as well as cayenne pepper which has large amounts of vitamin A. Vitamin A is supposed to be an helpful anti-infection nutrient. Green tea is also recommended. Green tea has shown the ability to help kill viruses as well as a boosting effect to the immune system.

Alcohol and cigarette smoke should be avoided during cold and flu season. Alcohol can be dehydrating. In addition, too much alcohol impairs liver and immune function. This opens the door to infection. Cigarette smoke, even secondhand cigarette smoke, dries out nasal passages and damages cilia (the small hairs in your lungs and nose that help to keep out viruses).

Although you may not feel quite as thirsty during the fall and winter, it is still important to drink eight glasses of water per day. Managing stress and getting enough sleep gives your body an opportunity to recharge. Evidence suggests that when you concentrate on putting your body into a relaxed state, your interleukins (leaders in the immune system’s response against the flu virus) increase in the bloodstream.

Consistent, adequate sleep is one of the most important things you can do for your body. When it comes to immune function, sleep plays an extremely critical role. Of course, getting enough sleep is also important for your metabolism and memory.

Treatment Options

If you are not in a high-risk group, you may try the following strategies to ease the misery of the flu. There is no cure for the flu, but getting relief from the symptoms is definitely worthwhile.

• Take medicine that eases the symptoms and helps you rest
• Drink plenty of liquids to stay hydrated
• Avoid aspirin and antibiotics (unless you are taking the antibiotics for another unrelated illness)
• Avoid alcohol and tobacco

Fortunately, most people who get the seasonal flu recover without needing medical care. Doctors, however, can prescribe antiviral drugs to shorten the amount of time that one suffers from the flu. Tamiflu and Flumadine are two examples of antiviral medications. These antivirals must be prescribed within 48 hours after the first onset of symptoms.

The Common Cold

The common cold is another ailment that often strikes during the winter. While people may get the flu once a year at the most, the common cold can strike several times a year. It is particular prevalent in winter.

Symptoms

Symptoms of the common cold include cough, runny nose and a sore throat. Some unlucky people also experience a fever, muscle aches, fatigue, headaches and shivering. Most of the times the symptoms will resolve themselves in about 7 to 10 days, though sometimes certain symptoms will persist for up to three weeks. During the first three days that you have a cold you are contagious, so you should spend this time resting and recovering.

In general, cold symptoms are milder than flu symptoms. People with colds are more likely to have a runny nose or nasal congestion. In most cases, colds do not result in serious health complications such as pneumonia or bacterial infections. Also, fevers are more prevalent among those that are suffering from the flu, though children are more likely to suffer a fever and even hives with a cold.

Often, cold symptoms begin with a mild sore throat. This sore throat will sometimes go away in a day or two. Then, nasal symptoms, a runny nose and congestion follow.

If these cold symptoms do not go away after a week to 10 days, you may have a bacterial infection that may need antibiotics prescribed by your family doctor.

Causes

Two hundred different viruses are known to cause the common cold, including rhinovirus, coronavirus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and adenovirus. The rhinovirus groups causes anywhere from 10% to 40% of all colds. The coronaviruses are responsible for about 20% of all colds. RSV is responsible for about 10% of all cases. In about 10% to 15% of cases, the common cold is caused by other viruses also responsible for other, more intense respiratory distress. Sometimes the cause of a cold is presumed to be viral, but it the type of virus cannot be determined.

These same viruses that produce colds in adults also produce colds in children.

Just like flu viruses, cold viruses enter your body through the mucous membranes of your nose, eyes, ears or mouth.

Risk Factors

Risk factors for the cold are very similar to the risk factors for the flu. Also, these factors make it more likely for someone to catch the common cold:

• A history of smoking. In fact, smoking will increase the duration of a cold by about three days.
• Spending time cooped up inside with an infected person on in close contact with an infected person. Like the flu, the cold is a droplet-borne infection. This means that colds are transmitted through breathing in the very tiny particles that someone with the cold emits when he or she sneezes, coughs or exhales
• Getting fewer than seven hours of sleep per night has a surprising effect on the risk of getting a cold. Studies have shown that not getting adequate sleep triples your risk of developing an infection from rhinovirus exposure, compared to those people that get eight or more hours of sleep per night
• Children and the elderly are more susceptible to colds
• Studies have also shown that low vitamin D blood levels have also been associated with a higher risk of getting a cold
• Much like the flu, dry air increases virus transmission rates

Prevention Tips

Avoid touching your eyes, mouth or nose with contaminated fingers. While the virus is harmless on one’s hands, once it is introduced to the upper respiratory tract it can spread through the body there. For this reason, good hygiene and frequent hand washing is recommended. Anti-bacterial soap is no better than regular soap when it comes to preventing the common cold – this is because the cold is caused by a virus and not bacteria.

Get adequate sleep. Something as simple as getting rest doesn’t sound like it would affect your overall health to such a degree, but it does. Sleep is so important for one’s overall well-being.

Stay away from people that are infected, especially during the first three days of their illness.

Treatment Options

Herbal remedies, such as Echinacea, have not been shown to shorten or prevent the common cold. In children, however, honey can help quiet a persistent cough.

Decongestants can help to ease a stuffy nose. Warm, humidified air can also alleviate congestion. Analgesics such as ibuprofen or acetaminophen can also help ease other symptoms of the common cold

There are no approved antiviral drugs for treating the common cold, though studies are ongoing in this particular area and they do show some promise. As with the flu, it is important to remain hydrated by drinking plenty of water.

Unfortunately, with all of the advances in medical research, scientists have still not found a cure for the common cold. The common cold, along with the flu, are the two most persistent ailments that we put up with every winter.

Measles is a very serious respiratory virus that is considered one of the “standard childhood diseases”. Measles is highly contagious; in fact, in the pre-20th century world, measles outbreaks often grew into epidemics. However, thanks to modern medicine, measles is no longer a serious threat. There is practically no possibility of measles causing an epidemic; except, perhaps, in third world countries.

Although measles usually affects children below the age of 9, older children as well as adults can also contract the illness. Young children have a better chance of surviving the virus without complications than adults do. Adults, particularly pregnant mothers, who contract the measles should seek medical help immediately.

Alternative Names

There are two different types of measles: rubeola and rubella. Although the symptoms of these two illnesses are very similar, they are caused by two separate viruses.

Rubeola

The most common type of measles is caused by the rubeola virus. This virus is also known as“red” or “hard” measles. A person with rubeola will experience flu-like symptoms, followed by a red, itchy rash. The symptoms of the rubeola virus usually last for 14 days or longer.

Symptoms of the Rubeola Virus

After a person has been infected by the rubeola virus, it will usually take 1 to 2 weeks before he or she starts showing any symptoms. This period is called the “incubation period”. After the incubation period, the person will start to experience flu-like symptoms. He or she will have a sore throat, a runny nose, and itchy, red eyes, also known as conjunctivas. The person will also experience intestinal problems, a severe cough, and his or her lymph nodes will very likely swell. Also, the rubeola virus often causes a fever of 103-degrees Fahrenheit.

As the flu-like symptoms disappear, the person will begin developing measles rash. The person will first develop a few red spots on the inside of his or her mouth; the rash will eventually spread all across the person’s body. Before the rash disappears, it will turn from red to brown. It will often take 2 weeks for a person with rubeola to fully recover.

Although measles rash is not as unpleasant as the rash associated with chickenpox, it is still very uncomfortable and can cause itching and other discomfort.

The rubeola virus most often affects young children.

Rubella

Measles caused by the rubella virus are often referred to as “German” or “three-day” measles. Although the symptoms of the two viruses are almost identical, rubella usually lasts only for a few days. However, those with the rubella virus are much more likely to develop secondary complications than those with the rubeola virus.

Symptoms of the Rubella Virus

The incubation period of the rubella virus can last from 2 to 3 weeks. The first symptoms of rubella are almost identical to those of rubeola. However, a person with rubella will begin developing a rash much more quickly. The rash will begin on the person’s face and then will spread across his or her body. The rash caused by the rubella virus will often disappear after 3 days, hence the nickname “three-day measles”. Rubella also causes a high fever, although it will rarely rise above 100-degrees Fahrenheit.

Children of all ages as well as adults can be affected by the rubella virus. However, a person with rubella is much more likely to develop secondary complications than a person with rubeola. Pregnant mothers are particularly as risk (see CRS in “Risk Factors”).

Causes

Both types of measles are caused by being exposed to a person infected with the virus. Since the virus can be airborne, it can spread even when an infected person is not in close contact with others. A person with the measles is contagious for about 4 days before and after the rash first appears.

Risk Factors

Although measles is a serious illness, it will often run its course without causing any serious complications. Infected children will most likely survive the virus very easily. Adults are at a higher risk of developing complications. Secondary complications of measles can include pneumonia, bronchitis, or other lung conditions; in rare cases, measles can cause encephalitis and/or meningitis. There is also a possibility of sensory impairment such as loss of sight or hearing.

One possible complication of the rubella virus is congenital rubella syndrome (CRS). CRS occurs when a
pregnant mother passes the rubella virus to her unborn child. The virus can cause serious birth defects such as brain damage, heart defects, or sensory impairment. Congenital rubella syndrome also increases the risk of miscarriage or stillbirth.

Both the rubeola and the rubella viruses are considered detrimental to those infected with HIV.

Measles rash rarely causes scarring. If minor blemishes remain after the rash disappears, they can usually be lightened by cocoa butter or vitamin E oil.

Prevention Tips

The best way to avoid the measles is to be vaccinated with an MMR (measles, mumps, and rubella) shot. Because the vaccine is made up of live attenuated viruses, the person vaccinated will experience some unpleasant symptoms. However, the vaccine will keep the person from ever being infected by any of the three viruses. The vaccine is most often given to children, ages 18 months to 1 year. If one shot does not provide sufficient protection, the child will be vaccinated again around age 4. Medical doctors can perform blood tests that will determine a person’s immunity.

The MMR vaccine has been surrounded by controversy for years. Many parents have been concerned that the vaccine could increase their children’s chances of developing autism. However, recent studies have proven that there is absolutely no link between the MMR vaccine and autism.

Although the MMR vaccine is most often given to young children, it can be given to adults; it is particularly recommended for adults infected with HIV.

Although a person infected with a measles virus does not need to be quarantined, he or she should not mingle with the general public. Infected children should not attend school or other group activities until the virus is past the contagious stage. Infected adults should stay home from work. A person who has been vaccinated properly will never catch the measles; also, if an unvaccinated person survives the illness, he or she will never become infected again.

Treatment Options

Viruses, including those that cause measles, do not respond to antibiotics. Therefore, it is impossible to “cure” measles. Some of the symptoms of measles can be alleviated, both by natural and by chemical and/or pharmaceutical means. However, the most important element in treating the measles is to lower the fever before it causes secondary complications and/or physical damage.

Natural and/or Home Remedies

White Willow Bark

White willow bark was used in the ancient world to lower fevers. It contains salicin, which is very similar to aspirin. However, white willow bark must be taken properly in order to be effective. It should never be taken without the guidance of a medical professional. White willow bark is not recommended for children.

Vitamin B Complex

B vitamins are always useful for fighting infections and boosting the immune system. If a person with the measles takes large doses of B vitamins daily, the duration of the illness will very likely be shortened and the risk of complications lowered. Adults should take approximately 300 mg of B vitamins per day. A medical professional should be consulted before B vitamins are administered to children.

Vitamin C

Large doses of vitamin C will help boost the immune system and control fevers. Also, since it can fight infections, it can help keep complications from developing. A person infected with a measles virus should take 3,000 to 10,000 mg per day. Small children should take a slightly smaller dose. Vitamin C can cause temporary intestinal problems.

Vitamin E

200-800 IU per day of vitamin E can help boost the immune system and promote tissue repair. Small children should never be given more than 200 IU per day. Also, topically applied vitamin E oil can help sooth measles rash.

Lanolin Products

Lanolin will help sooth measles rash. Lanolin should not cause any adverse effects unless the person is allergic to it. Also, when treating measles rash, it is advisable to use pure lanolin. Lanolin mixed with preservatives and/or other chemicals may cause further skin irritation.

Oatmeal Baths

Oatmeal baths are a traditional way to sooth rashes from measles and other viruses. Add 1 cup of dried oatmeal to a warm bath or create an oatmeal mixture and apply it directly to the irritated spot. Adding soothing herbs such as mint, licorice, or chamomile can also be helpful; just make sure not to add anything that might cause an allergic reaction. Special bath mixtures can be made at home or purchased ready-made at most health and wellness stores.

Chamomile

Chamomile tea can help relieve coughs and sore throats. The herb also has a calming effect and can help induce sleep. It is also very soothing to the skin and can be used for baths or topical rubs. Caution should be used, however, because some people are allergic to this herb.

Homeopathic Remedies

Homeopathic remedies are some of the best ways to treat the symptoms of both measles viruses. If taken properly and under the guidance of a homeopath or other qualified professional, these remedies should not have any adverse effects. Homeopathic remedies are perfectly safe for children of all ages.

Belladonna

Belladonna is particularly helpful for controlling high fevers. It will even help if the fever is causing sweating, delirium, or convulsions. Belladonna also relieves most flu-like symptoms.

Aconite

Aconite is only effective if given at the first sign of symptoms. It is also much more effective in treating children than adults. Aconite will help control fevers and will relieve sore throats and runny noses.

Gelsemium

Gelsemium will relieve flu-like symptoms and will help control the measles rash. In order to be effective, the remedy must be given at the first sign of red spots. Gelsemium is not the best homeopathic remedy for controlling fevers.

Sulphur

Sulphur primarily treats measles rash. It can also fight infections and will, therefore, help keep secondary complications, such as ear or lung infections, from forming.

Morbillinum

Morbillinum treats nearly every symptom of the measles. It also helps keep secondary complications from developing. However, Morbillium is not very effective for treating extremely high fevers.

Pulsatilla

Pulsatilla can help sore throats and runny noses and will also help slow down the development of measles rash.

Rhus Toxicodendron

Rhus toxicondendron can help lower high fevers and will also sooth measles rash. This remedy is useful during all stages of the measles.

Pharmaceuticals

Tylenol, Ibuprofen, and Other Fever Reducers

Traditional pharmaceuticals such as Tylenol and ibuprofen are highly recommended to help reduce fevers. If the dosage instructions are followed carefully, there will be absolutely no risk of adverse effects. Aspirin can also be used, but only by adults. Children and those under the age of 19 who take aspirin while infected with a virus run the risk of contracting the potentially life threatening disease Reye’s syndrome.

An eating disorder is a condition that affects one’s eating habits. These disorders can lead one to eat too much or too little. Though eating disorders usually occur in children and young adults, they have also been seen to affect adults later in life, with females being more affected than males. While an eating disorder is a treatable illness, it is usually accompanied by psychiatric disorders like depression or anxiety. Many who suffer an eating disorder may also experience health problems such as kidney or heart failure. Unfortunately, if not treated, this condition can lead to death.

Alternative Names

Eating disorders have many alternative names, as there are many different types of this illness. Some common disorders include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating or compulsive overeating.

Symptoms

The main symptoms include eating too much or too little, usually at extreme amounts.

Anorexia and Bulimia

Anorexia and bulimia both show the same symptoms. While a main sign of an eating disorder is rapid weight loss, it is important to note that a person suffering from this disorder may not appear to be underweight at all. These symptoms can be medical, psychological, and can be seen in one’s day to day living.

Obsession about food is one sign of an eating disorder. This is a situation where the patient goes to extremes worrying about calories and fat intake, weight problems, and has the need to continuously exercise. This may all be kept track of in a food diary. Obsessively reading books and visiting website about losing weight are also common.

Patients usually look for ways to get rid of the food they have eaten or they avoid eating at all. Activities such as running to the bathroom to vomit immediately after meals, binging or purging, and the use of laxatives or diet pills are all signs to be aware of. Some patients restrict the amount of food they eat or avoid eating altogether.

Finding ways to dispose of uneaten food is another alternative to not eating. Moving food around on a plate to make it look as though it is eaten, chewing it then spitting it out into a napkin to throw away or flushed down the toilet, or cutting food into small pieces are all examples. Some patients have secret eating patterns and tend to hide food in places like closets and under the bed in order to eat at a more preferred time.

Medically, the symptoms can be more of a serious threat. Patients tend to experience hair loss and a pale coloring of the skin. They may experience headaches, dizziness, sore throats and swollen glands. Other medical symptoms include low blood pressure, constipation, incontinence, loss of menstrual cycle, bruised knuckles, bloodshot eyes, or bruising under the eyes and on cheeks.

Personally, these patients may have low self-esteem and put themselves down. They may feel the constant need for acceptance from other people, thereby, feeling the need to be a perfectionist. They may also lose sexual desire, suffer mood swings, depression, and fatigue due to insomnia.

Compulsive Overeating

Patients who suffer binge eating often have associated psychological problems with the illness. The sense of fear is one symptom they have to struggle with. They fear not being able to control their eating habits or not being able to stop eating once they get started. They fear eating around others, which in turn, causes them to put themselves in isolation.

These patients feel a need for constant dieting and need to keep up on the most popular diet plans. They assume life will be perfect if they can lose weight because they feel that their failure in society is due to their weight. On the other hand, they may show secretive eating habits and store food in strange places such as in cabinets or in suitcases to eat at a more convenient time.

Medically, patients who overeat are often short of breath after light activity. They experience excessive sweating, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, leg or joint pain, and decreased mobility because of increased weight gain. Because of insomnia, patients usually feel tires, depressed, and experience mood swings and loss of sexual desire.

Causes of Eating Disorders

There is no one cause for someone having an eating disorder. Aside from being a weight problem, it can be associated with family pressures, genetics, cultural pressures, emotional and psychological factors, and personality disorders.

Negative family influences may be a problem with one acquiring an eating disorder. This can result from a mother having a previous eating disorder, a father criticizing a child’s weight, obesity being present in the family, abuse, families with addictions, and those with emotional disorders.

Genetics can play a great role in eating disorders. It is common to learn that many patients have family members suffering from the same problem. There have been specific chromosomes associated with anorexia and bulimia.

Hormonal abnormalities may be partly responsible for one’s susceptibility to the eating disorders. These chemical abnormalities can be found in the thyroid, reproductive areas, and regions of stress and appetite.
Major life changes can cause one to experience an eating disorder. This may result from the feeling of losing control one may feel over the death of a loved one, major illness of someone close to them, or from having to change schools.

There are many other factors that may cause one to become a victim of an eating disorder. Social problems, a traumatic event, psychiatric illnesses such as depression or anxiety, failure at school, work, or athletics can also contribute.

Risk Factors

There are many risk factors\ which can lead one to become susceptible to an eating disorder. The age of the patient is mainly adolescent and young adult, with females being more predominant. It is present in all races and at all socioeconomic levels.

Certain personality disorders can put people at risk for the disorder. Those with Avoidant Personalities tend to be associated with anorexia nervosa. People with avoidant personalities tend to be perfectionists, being perceived as being ‘good’, and being afraid of criticism or humiliation. Other personality disorders that can lead to an eating disorder include Obsessive-Compulsive Personality, Borderline Personalities, and Narcissistic Personalities.

There are emotional disorders that can be the cause of the eating disorder or actually be the result of the disorder. These mainly involve issues with depression and anxiety. Examples include Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, phobias, panic disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder.

Serious health problems or death can result from having an eating disorder which has gotten out of control. Patients with bulimia have a better recovery outlook than those with anorexia. While treatment is possible, patients do relapse.

Bulimia Medical Problems

Medical problems associated with bulimia include tooth erosion, cavities, and gum problems. Patients usually experience water retention, swelling, and abdominal bloating, along with acute stomach distress. Females can experience irregular periods. With excessive vomiting or laxative use, there can be fluid loss and low potassium levels. This can lead to weakness, near paralysis, and lethal heart rhythms. Forced vomiting can cause esophagus damage such as rupture and weakened rectal walls.

Self-destructive behavior is also seen in patients with bulimia. This includes smoking, impulsive behaviors, and alcohol and substance abuse.

Anorexia Medical Problems

Anorexia nervosa is an extremely serious disorder which affects the body in many ways. There is no treatment that is 100% effective. Recovery can take years and some patients never recover. Many patients relapse because they retain their desire for perfection and weight loss. It has been researched that anorexia nervosa has the highest death rate of any psychiatric disorder.

A serious effect of anorexia is the hormonal changes. Many hormones are lowered such as the reproductive hormones, thyroid hormones, and growth hormones. Stress hormones tend to rise. For females, this causes changes to the menstrual cycle, infertility, and bone loss.

Suicide is a big concern for patients with anorexia. They tend to be at high risk for anxiety and depression, leading to alcohol and drug abuse.

Heart disease is a common cause of death in patients with anorexia. The disorder can cause dangerous heart rhythms, including brachycardia, which is the slowing of the heartbeat. It can also cause blood flow to be reduced, blood pressure to drop, and the heart muscles to lose size. An electrolyte imbalance can occur due to the reduction of fluids and mineral levels. These minerals, such as potassium and calcium, are essential for the electric currents which keep a normal heartbeat. An electrolyte imbalance can be life-threatening.

Severe anorexia can cause nerve damage to the brain and other parts of the body. Seizures, disordered thinking, and numbness in the hands or feet have been reported. Certain parts of the brain undergo structural changes during anorexia and while most of these changes return to normal after weight gain, some damage is permanent.

Other medical problems which can occur include anemia, gastrointestinal problems, organ failure, and complications for adolescents with diabetes type 1.

Test and Diagnosis Considerations

Admitting that one has an eating disorder is the first step toward a diagnosis. An Eating Disorder Examination (EDE) is a medical interview that may be conducted by the doctor to determine a patient’s eating habits. This may be accompanied with a self-supported Eating Disorders Examination-Questionnaire. The SCOFF questionnaire is another means to help identify young and old patients for anorexia nervosa or bulimia.

Bulimia nervosa can be diagnosed if the patient has two bulimic episodes per week for 3 months. Since bulimia can cause complications with teeth and gums, dentists can also aid in identifying the disorder.

Anorexia nervosa can be diagnosed if the patient refuses to maintain a normal body weight, fears becoming fat while underweight, low self-image, and loss of menstrual function for 3 months.

Once an eating disorder diagnosis has been made, doctors then test for any serious complications that may have resulted. These tests include a complete blood count, testing for electrolyte imbalances, test for protein levels, an EKG and chest x-ray, testing for liver, kidney, and thyroid problems, and a bone density test.

Treatment Options

Medical treatments are available for eating disorders and some patients may need psychological treatment. It is important that each individual patient find a treatment plan that is right for him. Some patients may need constant monitoring and medications, counseling for nutrition, as well as therapy.

Therapy can be made available in an individual, group or family setting. While a professional therapist usually runs the group session, they can also be run by a recovered patient, a loved one of a person with an eating disorder, or a volunteer. While these sessions can take place in an inpatient or outpatient program, a therapist’s office, or with an independent support group, they can also take place in a university, high school, or a private home.

Psychiatrists, psychologist, social workers, and counselors can provide therapy for eating disorders. Most of these professionals have obtained degrees which fall within the fields of psychology, psychotherapy, social work, and counseling. While a therapist may not be a licensed individual, they can still provide support. The only disadvantage is that without a license, they are not permitted to prescribe medications.

Group & Individual Therapy

Group therapy is beneficial because it lets the patients know that they alone do not suffer this disorder. When attending a group therapy session, it is important to know what the goal and objectives are of the group because there are many different methods of treatment when it comes to group therapy. Support groups tend to cover topics such as strategies for coping, family issues, spirituality, and nutrition. Each individual patient needs to know what type of therapy he needs in order to make a good recovery.

Individual therapy is important for a patient in order to learn to be more confident and to learn how to cope with any anger, stress, or depression. There are many different methods to this type of therapy and it is important to know which one is right for the patient. The different types of individual therapy include the Psychoanalytic Therapy, the Nonpsychoanalytic Therapy, Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, and the Eclectic Approach-Combining All Theories. The Eclectic Approach-Combining All Theories is the most commonly used form of therapy because it combines a lot of aspects from the other theories.

Nutritional therapy can be offered from a nutritionist or dietician. The goal of this type of therapy is to help one improve their eating habits and to teach how to incorporate a healthy amount of exercise into the daily routine. The best type of nutritional therapy should be under the supervision of a doctor or therapist.

This article will discuss the symptoms, causes, and treatments for arteriosclerosis. Arteriosclerosis is the hardening and loss of elasticity of medium or large arteries. This article will also present a discussion of atherosclerosis, the most common form of arteriosclerosis, as well as a related disease, arteriolosclerosis, the hardening and loss of elasticity of small arteries (arterioles).

In order for the human body to remain healthy, oxygen rich blood from the lungs must be transported efficiently to all of the living tissues of the body. When blood leaves the heart it is transported through a vast network of tubular structures called arteries. Like the muscle tissues of the heart, the walls of the arteries expand and contract rhythmically in order to transport the blood to the locations where the oxygen and other nutrients that it carries can be absorbed into the cells of the body. In the disease known as arteriosclerosis, the ability of the walls of arteries to transport blood efficiently is diminished due to the buildup of cholesterol deposits (plaque) inside of the arteries.

The passages inside of the arteries narrow as plaque accumulates. In advanced stages of arteriosclerosis, the accumulated plaque becomes hardened by fibrous tissue growth and calcification. Calcification is the formation of calcium deposits. Blood flow is reduced and less oxygen and vital nutrients are transported to cells of the body.

Plaque accumulation or blood clots resulting from rupture of accumulated plaque may completely obstruct the flow of blood in the artery, resulting in the death of the living tissues that are supported by that artery. This condition may, for example, result in a heart attack (death of heart muscle tissue) or a stroke (death of brain tissue).

Alternate Names

Arterioscelerosis is commonly associated with the following terms and descriptions:

• Atherosclerosis
• Arteriosclerotic vascular disease (ASVD)
• Hardening of the arteries
• Plaque buildup inside of the arteries

Atherosclerosis is a disease where a buildup of cholesterol (plaque) occurs on the inner walls of the arteries. This disease diminishes the flow of blood within the affected arteries. The accumulated plaque associated with atherosclerosis can burst, potentially causing blood clots. A blood clot is a condition where the inner passage of an artery is severely restricted or completely blocked by blood platelets which have clumped together.

Blood clots are desirable when stemming the flow of blood from cuts and abrasions on the skin, however are extremely dangerous when formed inside of arteries. Blood clots that form inside of an artery will generally result in the death of the living tissues supported by the flow of blood inside of the affected artery. Although atherosclerosis is associated with the restriction of larger arteries such as those in the heart and abdomen, this disease can restrict arteries anywhere in the body. The disease where smaller arteries are restricted by plaque buildup is called arteriolosclerosis.

Arteriosclerotic vascular disease (ASVD) is the disease in which the passages inside of arteries are restricted by the build-up of cholesterol (plaques). It is also the disease where blood vessels inside the arteries are chronically inflamed (swollen). This inflammation occurs due to an accumulation of white blood cells which work to absorb fats and cholesterol, but cannot in turn eliminate these unhealthy accumulations due a lack of high density lipoproteins (known as HDL, or “the good cholesterol”). ASVD is commonly referred to as hardening or furring of the arteries. ASVD results in increased risk of heart attack and stroke.

Hardening of the arteries is the disease where plaques (fat and cholesterol) accumulate inside of the arteries and harden due to fibrous tissue growth and calcification.

Plaque build-up inside the arteries refers to the disease where progressive layers of cholesterol accumulate on the inner walls of the arteries.

Symptoms

The onset of arteriosclerosis is usually not accompanied by any symptoms until after an artery is critically narrowed or obstructed. Once an artery has been critically obstructed, the following symptoms may occur:

• heart attack
• chest pain (angina)
• numbness or weakness in arms or legs
• difficulty speaking or slurred speech
• drooping muscles in of the face
• leg pain when walking (intermittent claudication)
• erectile dysfunction (in men)

Risk Factors

The following factors which are known to increase the incidence (rate of occurrence) of arteriosclerosis:

• High blood pressure
• High cholesterol
• Diabetes
• Obesity
• Smoking
• A family history of aneurysm or early heart disease

Prevention

The following practices will assist in preventing arteriosclerosis. It is important to implement lifestyle changes of this type gradually so that they are sustainable and can be performed with consistency over the long term.

• Stop smoking
• Eat healthy foods
• Exercise regularly
• Maintain a healthy weight
• Consume less alcohol
• Avoid chronic dehydration

Cardiovascular health including cholesterol levels should be assessed annually by a licensed physician.

Tests & Diagnosis

Arteriosclerosis can be detected during a physical exam conducted by a physician using the following methods:

• A weak or absent pulse below the narrowed area of the artery
• Decreased blood pressure in an affected limb
• Whooshing sounds (bruits) inside of the arteries (heard with a stethoscope)
• Signs of a pulsating bulge (aneurysm) in the abdomen or behind the knee
• Evidence of poor healing in the area of a wound where blood flow is restricted

Once detection has occurred, diagnosis may proceed via the following means:

Blood tests

Lab tests may be conducted to detect increased levels of cholesterol and blood sugar that may increase the risk of atheriosclerosis.

Doppler ultrasound

A device utilizing Doppler ultrasound can measure blood pressure at various locations. These measurements assist the physician in determining the criticality of any blockages, as well as the speed of blood flow within the arteries.

Ankle-brachial index

This test can determine if atherosclerosis is present in the arteries located in the legs and feet. The physician will compare the blood pressure the ankle with the blood pressure in the arm. This comparison is known as the ankle-brachial index. An abnormal difference (ankle-brachial index) may indicate peripheral vascular disease. Peripheral vascular disease is also known as peripheral artery disease (PAD), or peripheral artery occlusive disease (PAOD). PVD includes all diseases that are caused by the restriction or obstruction of the large arteries in the arms and legs. PVD is usually caused by atherosclerosis.

Electrocardiogram (ECG)

An electrocardiogram records electrical signals travelling through the heart. An ECG can reveal evidence of a previous heart attack or one that is in progress.

Angiogram

An angiogram is an X-ray technique where a special dye is injected into the arteries in order to outline restrictions or obstructions on the X-ray images.

Other Imaging Tests

Physicians may also use ultrasound, a computerized tomography (CT) scan or a magnetic resonance angiogram (MRA) to diagnose arteriosclerosis with in the arteries. These tests can reveal hardening and narrowing of large arteries, as well as aneurysms and calcium deposits in the artery walls. An aneurysm is a ballon-like bulge (dilation) of the artery caused weakening the the wall of the artery. Aneurysms occur most often in the arteries at the base of the brain and in the main artery exiting the heart (aorta).

Treatment Options

The optimal treatment options for arteriosclerosis are passive remedies. Passive remedies allow the defense mechanisms of the body to work naturally to prevent or remedy the disease. However, where arteriosclerosis is in advanced stages, or there is a genetic predisposition for high cholesterol, or passive remedies alone are insufficient for effective treatment or cannot be reliability sustained, then active remedies and treatments may be required (see Active Remedies).

All remedies and treatment options for arteriosclerosis should be conducted under the supervision of a licensed health professional, who will determine if the treatments are safe and effective for the individual patient and will conduct periodic examinations and tests to monitor cardiovascular health. Each individual has a unique genetic makeup and lifestyle, and may therefore react differently to a particular treatment option. It is therefore of critical importance for a licensed health professional to monitor and tailor the treatment options to the optimal benefit of a particular patient.

Passive Remedies

• Stop smoking
• Healthy Diet
• Exercise
• Adequate Hydration

Stop Smoking

Smoking damages the arteries. Halting the practice of smoking (breaking the habit) is necessary to slow or halt the progression of atherosclerosis.

Healthy Diet

A healthy diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grands—low in saturated fat, cholesterol, and sodium—will assist in controlling weight, blood pressure, cholesterol. Reduce saturated fat, cholesterol, and sodium by decreasing intake of fried foods, red meat, hydrogenated oils, and trans fatty acids. Introduce omega-3 oils, fish oils, and other healthy oils (like virgin cold-pressed olive oil) into the regular diet.

Exercise

Exercise should be performed most days of the week. Muscle groups that are exercised regularly will become conditioned to use oxygen more efficiently. Physical activity improves circulation and initiates the development of new blood vessels, which tend to form a natural bypass around obstructed or restricted blood vessels. Exercise regimens should be introduced gradually so the practitioner can adapt to and sustain the associated lifestyle changes over the long term.

Adequate Hydration

It is both impractical and irrational to ignore the body’s need for hydration. Chronic disease, arteriosclerosis included, is commonly accompanied by chronic dehydration and, may in fact be enabled or advanced solely due to this condition. In order to maintain adequate hydration levels the average person needs to drink two quarts (1.89 L) of water daily. Average person will actually consume four quarts of water daily, however two quarts are obtained from food metabolism and the water content in foods. When water intake is sufficient, the color of the urine (approximately 2 quarts a day) will be colorless. When the color of urine becomes yellow, it indicates the onset of dehydration. When color of urine becomes orange it indicates that the body is critically dehydrated. The reader is cautioned to consult with a licensed physician with regards to coloration of the urine that may be attributed to medications or food supplements such as Vitamin C (ascorbic acid); rather than dehydration.

Active Remedies

• Medications
• Surgery
• Intravenous chelation (naturopathic alterative to surgery)

Various medications can slow and sometimes even reverse the effects of atherosclerosis.

• Cholesterol lowering medications (statins) reduce the undesirable low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and increase levels of desirable high-density lipoproteins (HDL), thereby slowing and possibly reversing the buildup of plaque inside the arteries.
• Anti-platelet medications such as aspirin may reduce the likelihood that platelets will form blood clots inside of narrowed arteries.
• Anticoagulants may assist by thinning the blood to prevent clots from forming.
• Blood pressure medications may assist in slowing the progression of atherosclerosis by reducing high blood pressure
• Other medications may be prescribed in order to reduce other risk factors for atherosclerosis, such as diabetes. Specific medications may be prescribed to treat the symptoms of atherosclerosis, such as leg pain during exercise.

Surgical procedures (often life-saving) may be required to in order to treat advanced stages of arteriosclerosis

• Angioplasty. A long, thin tube (catheter) is inserted into the blocked or narrowed part of the artery. A wire with a deflated balloon is passed through the catheter to the narrowed area. The balloon is then inflated, compressing the plaque deposits against the artery walls. A mesh tube (stent) is commonly left inside of the artery to facilitate keeping the artery open.
• Endarterectomy. This procedure is used when fatty deposits must be surgically removed from the walls of a narrowed artery. When the procedure is done on arteries located in the neck, it is called a carotid endarterectomy.
• Thrombolytic therapy. A clot-dissolving drug is injected into the artery at the point of the clot to break it up.
• Bypass surgery. A graft bypass is created using a vessel from another part of the body or a tube made of synthetic fabric. This allows blood to flow around the blocked or narrowed artery.

Intravenous chelation may be considered as a naturopathic alterative to surgery. Intravenous chelation is performed by introducing minerals and binding compounds into the bloodstream by using an intravenous solution. This chelation solution binds with plaque inside the arteries and assists in flushing the plaque out of the cardiovascular system. Intravenous chelation is an invasive procedure that must be performed by trained medication professionals in a naturopathic or alternative health clinic.

Cost of Treatment

A quantitative assessment of the costs of various treatment options of arteriosclerosis is beyond the scope of this article. The cost of treatment for a specific patient may vary significantly depending on what treatment options are covered by the patient’s medical insurance plan and what co-payment amounts were selected as a part of that plan. In cases where the patient has no medical insurance or where the total cost of treatment is being considered, the following rules apply:

• Passive remedies are generally the least expensive treatment options
• Active remedies are generally the most expensive treatment options
• Costs of individual treatment options may vary significantly dependent upon the provider

Resources

Emedicinehealth.Com

MayoClinic.Com

National Health Institute

Every year millions of people see their doctors for symptoms such as constipation, abdominal pain, diarrhea, or excessive gas. These are the most common indicators of gastrointestinal disorders. The diagnoses for digestive disorder range from an upset stomach to the potentially serious and life-threatening colon cancer, or colorectal cancer. The most common diagnoses are Irritable Bowel Syndrome, or IBS, Inflammatory Bowel Disease, also called IBD, and Gastro Esophageal Reflux Disease, GERD. Other possible conclusions that a doctor may come to are that there is an ulcer somewhere in the digestive tract, the esophagus, stomach or large or small intestine. While a family doctor can diagnose and treat these diseases, referral to a gastroenterologist is usually recommended.

Irritable Bowel Syndrome

Also called spastic colon, nervous stomach, irritable colon and spastic colitis, this syndrome is not generally considered to be a serious intestinal disorder. The large intestine, or large bowel, becomes inflamed and irritated. The inflammation is usually not chronic. However, the symptoms and irritation reappear on an irregular basis. IBS does not increase the threat of developing colorectal cancer. Approximately 20 % of adults in the United States are affected by Irritable Bowel Syndrome.

Characteristic symptoms for IBS are bloating, gas, abdominal pain and discomfort, and constipation and/or diarrhea. Excess mucus or frequent urgency in bowel movements, feelings of incomplete evacuation or changes in stool are other symptoms that might be experienced. Nausea, fatigue and vomiting are also associated with IBS.

Specific causes for IBS have not been found. Stress is thought to be a factor in the development of IBS symptoms. Food allergies, excessive alcohol use and use of antibiotics may also play a role in this disorder. Peristalsis, the contraction of the muscles in the colon which moves the waste through, may be involved also. The contractions may stop temporarily or may cause intense periodic spasms.

Testing

Since there is no diagnostic test for IBS, the majority of tests that are performed to will be conducted in an effort to rule out other diseases or disorders. Stool sampling, blood work and abdominal x-rays will probably be performed first. A colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy will usually be ordered to take a look at the structure of the colon and search for abnormalities. CT scans and lactose intolerance tests are common diagnostic tools that may also be utilized. If the results of this testing is negative, a diagnosis of IBS may follow.

Most doctors use the Rome criteria in addition to the tests mentioned to diagnose this disorder. The Rome criterion states that the following symptoms must be present for at least 3 months out of the past year. The three months of symptoms do not need to be consecutive. First, the patient has had abdominal pain coupled with at least two of the following: it is relieved with a bowel movement, it coincides with a change in frequency of bowel movements, or there is a change in stool consistency.

Treatment methods for irritable bowel syndrome include dietary changes and stress management. Increasing the amount of fiber in your diet or taking fiber supplements will usually decrease constipation. Over-the-counter or prescription anti-diarrheal medicines can be used to control this symptom. Reducing or eliminating salads, raw vegetables and fruits and carbonated beverages will help with bloating and gas symptoms. Antidepressant medications and/or counseling may be prescribed for patients having difficulty managing their stress.

Inflammatory Bowel Disease

There are two related but distinctly different diseases which fall into this category of intestinal disorders. Both of them are associated with chronic pain and swelling of the intestines. Ulcerative colitis, sometimes referred to as chronic ulcerative colitis or CUC, is an inflammation of the lining of the large intestine and rectum. The inflammation from Crohn’s disease can occur in any part of the digestive tract, from the mouth to the rectum. Most commonly it affects the lower part of the small intestine and the large intestine. Unlike colitis, the inflammation occurs in all of the layers of the intestinal wall.

Since both of these inflammatory bowel diseases involve bleeding into the digestive tract, the first symptoms noticed will be diarrhea, blood in the stools, weight loss, fatigue and anemia. Diminished appetite, fever and abdominal cramping are other symptoms common to patients suffering from IBD. Joint pain, skin rashes, and inflammation of the eyes are associated with IBD.

Along with noting the above symptoms, doctors will inquire about family history of IBD, history of cigarette smoking and alcohol intake as well as perform diagnostic tests as part of their examination process. Blood tests will be performed to determine if anemia and a high white blood cell count is present. Stool samples will be checked for the presence of abnormal bacteria, bleeding and infection. A barium enema, or lower GI series, is a procedure that examines the lower part of the small intestine, the entire large intestine and the rectal area.

This will show the presence of obstructions, blockages, or narrowed areas, strictures, in this part of the intestinal tract. A sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy is usually performed. During this procedure samples of cells or tissue may be removed for a biopsy of the material under a microscope.

Time Period of Treatment

Since inflammatory bowel diseases are chronic they usually require treatment with medications over an extended period of time. Aspirin products, steroids and immune system modifiers are the most common medications used to treat IBD. Antibiotics may also be prescribed to treat or prevent infections. Anemia is treated with Vitamin B and Iron, either in the form of supplements or injections.

Surgery may be indicated for both of these forms of IBD. If the patient’s response to medications is minimal or non-existent or the side effects of the medicine are intolerable surgery will usually be performed. Formation of strictures, blockages or an abscess or changes that indicate a precancerous or cancerous condition are also reasons for surgical intervention. Depending on the severity of the disease, ulcerative colitis patients may have a portion of their large intestine removed, or the entire colon will be taken out. Removing the entire colon is the only cure for colitis patients. If only a part of the colon is removed the remaining sections will be sutured together and normal bowel function will return.

There is a possibility that the colitis will recur, requiring further medication treatment and/or surgery. When the entire large intestine is removed, there are a few options for waste removal. The small intestine can be attached to a stoma, or opening, in the lower abdominal area.

The patient will need to wear an external bag to collect fecal material. This bag is emptied frequently and changed on a regular basis. A procedure known as an ileoanal anastomosis, or pouch procedure, can be quite effective and eliminates the need for a permanent stoma.

The lower part of the small intestine is used to create a reservoir, which is then connected to the anus. Surgery for Crohn’s disease is often required to relieve symptoms and to remove portions of the small intestine that have been damaged by the chronic inflammation.

However, surgery cannot cure the disease. Almost three-fourths of Crohn’s patients require surgery at some time during the course of their treatment. In this surgery the section of intestine that is showing active involvement of the disease is removed and the remaining ends of the intestine are surgically connected. Approximately 75 % of patients will experience a recurrence of Crohn’s disease within 10-15 years following surgery.

Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease

Gastroesophageal reflux disease, or GERD, occurs when gastric juices from the stomach flow upwards into the esophagus. The muscle at the bottom of the esophagus, the lower esophageal sphincter or LES, is thought to be the cause of GERD. A hiatal hernia occurs at this location which causes the sphincter to relax too frequently or for too long a time, allowing gastric acid to reflux into the esophagus.

Other factors may be obesity, overeating, use of alcohol or tobacco, or consuming too much caffeine. Eating fatty, spicy or acidic foods or foods containing peppermint, chocolate or citrus may also cause reflux disease. The disease is chronic, meaning that once it starts patients will suffer from it for their entire life.

Acid indigestion, or heartburn, is the most common symptom of GERD. It is a burning sensation behind the breastbone that seems to move upward toward the neck and throat. Other symptoms may include frequent burping, stomach aches, a persistent cough, gagging or choking, and waking up with a sour taste in your mouth or a soar throat.

Diagnoses

GERD is diagnosed utilizing a number of tests. A chest x-ray will look for signs of aspiration. An upper gastrointestinal series, called an upper GI or barium swallow, will assess the structure of the digestive organs. An endoscopy will often be performed. This involves inserting a small flexible tube containing a light and camera lens into the throat, stomach and the upper portion of the small intestine. In addition to being able to visually examine these areas, the physician is also able to collect tissue samples for biopsy examination.

A pH monitoring device may be inserted in the esophagus just above the LES and attached to an external monitor. Over a period of 24 hours the device records the pH level at the sphincter. The patient records the time and circumstances when an episode occurs, allowing the physician to make a correlation between symptoms and pH levels.

Symptoms

Mild GERD symptoms may be alleviated using antacids. Patients should avoid eating 2 to 3 hours before lying down. Use of tobacco, alcohol, and caffeine should be curtailed or discontinued. Elevating the head of the bed 6 inches is helpful. Cutting back on the amount of food eaten in one sitting is also recommended.

Mild to moderate symptoms will respond to the above lifestyle changes. Foaming agents may be used to cover the contents of the stomach with foam which prevents reflux. H2 blockers are available over the counter but only provide relief in about 50 % of GERD sufferers. These medications only provide short term relief from the symptoms.

Proton pump inhibitors can be obtained over the counter or by prescription. They are more effective than H2 blockers as they not only relieve symptoms but also heal the lining of the esophagus. Prokinetic medications help empty the stomach faster, improve the peristalsis movement in the digestive tract and strengthen the LES. However, the side effects of fatigue, anxiety and depression make physicians cautious in prescribing them. Medications work differently in each individual. They also may have less desirable effects when taken in certain combinations. Patients should always consult their physician before adding new medications or changing dosage.

Ulcers

An ulcer occurs when the lining in part of the digestive tract develops a sore which can cause a hole, or lesion. An ulcer located in the lining of the stomach or the duodenum, the beginning of the small intestine, is called a peptic ulcer. In the stomach, peptic ulcers are classified as gastric ulcers. Peptic ulcers in the duodenum are duodenal ulcers.

In the past physicians felt that ulcers were caused by stress or by eating too much acidic foods. Later they thought that the hydrochloric acid and pepsin released in the stomach during digestion was the cause. It is now known that the bacteria Helicobacter pylori, or H. pylori, and the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, or NSAIDS, are the main factors that cause ulcers.

The H. pylori bacterium produces ammonia, which weakens the protective mucous coating in the stomach, allowing the acids produced during digestion to create sores. NSAIDS are weak acids and cause inflammation of the digestive tract. Smoking, alcohol use, caffeine and physical stress, such as major surgery or severe burns, are also contributory factors in the development of ulcers.

Symptoms

The symptoms of stomach ulcers may go unnoticed for a long time after the ulcer has formed. Duodenal ulcer symptoms present almost immediately after they have formed. A burning pain in the upper middle portion of the abdomen is the most common symptom. This pain may be temporarily relieved by eating or by taking an antacid, but returns with sometimes greater intensity. The pain may cause the patient to awaken suddenly in the middle of the night. Other symptoms may include nausea, frequent belching, blood in the stool, black stool, recurrent vomiting and anemia.

Since there are potentially serious complications from ulcers, it is important to seek medical attention when symptoms present themselves. Persistent bleeding can cause weakness and fatigue as well as anemia. An ulcer may perforate, or eat through, the wall of the stomach or intestine, releasing partially digested food and bacteria into the abdominal cavity.

This could cause peritonitis, an infection requiring prompt medical attention. Ulcers can also cause swelling and scar tissue to form, especially at the end of the stomach where the duodenum is attached. This can cause a narrowing or a complete obstruction at that point which will inhibit or stop the passage of food into the intestinal tract.

Diagnosing

An upper GI series, or barium swallow, is used to diagnose an ulcer. The barium, a chalky liquid, coats the inside of the upper digestive organs which will show the health of those organs on an x-ray. An endoscopic examination will allow the physician to see the extent of the ulcer damage. It also allows for the removal of tissue for biopsy examination. Detecting the H. pylori bacteria is done through blood, breath and stomach tissue tests. It is important for the physician to determine whether this bacterium is present or whether the ulcer has been caused by NSAID drugs as the treatment regimen will be quite different in each case.

People with ulcers should not smoke, as smoking causes delays in the healing process and also causes them to recur. For H. pylori caused ulcers, doctors will prescribe antibiotic medications to kill the bacteria. In addition, antacids, acid blockers, and proton pump inhibitors may be utilized to help reduce the amount of acid produced in the stomach.

Ulcers that do not heal are called refractory ulcers. Many of the reasons that ulcers fail to heal are often related to the choices that patients make. They may continue smoking or consuming alcohol. They may be taking NSAIDS after being told not to take them. They may not be taking their medications according to the directions given them by their doctor.

There are, however, medical reasons that ulcers do not respond favorably to treatment regimens. Some strains of the H. pylori bacteria are resistant to certain antibiotics. It is also possible that another bacterium is present. The patient may have stomach cancer, cirrhosis, or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease which are interfering with the healing process.

Surgery for Ulcers

Infrequently, ulcers that do not heal or respond to conventional treatment may require surgery. There are three types of surgery that may be performed. The first is called a vagotomy. The vagus nerve sends and receives messages from the brain which causes the stomach to produce acid. During a vagotomy, parts of this nerve are severed, interrupting messages sent through it and thus reducing acid production and secretion. A pyloroplasty is often performed along with the vagotomy procedure.

The pylorus is the opening between the stomach and duodenum. During this surgery, the pylorus is enlarged, allowing food from the stomach to pass more freely into the small intestine. An antrectomy is the removal of the lower part of the stomach. This area of the stomach produces a hormone which stimulates secretion of digestive juices. This procedure is also often performed in conjunction with a vagotomy.

Resources

Digestive Disease Myths

WebMd.Com

Auto Immune Disorders

Acne scarring, as with any other scarring, is the result of a wound in our skin. The problem of acne scarring begins first with having acne. Acne begins with our skin producing natural oil in the subaceous gland. Bacteria causing acne metabolizes this oil, which then irritates the skin. When the skin is irritated by the oil, hair follicles become plugged and collect debris.

The debris burrows into the deeper layer of skin called the dermis. The debris is seen by the body as a foreign substance and the body tries to get rid of the foreign substance through an inflammatory response. This is when you see the acne pimple.

The body struggles to rid itself of the foreign substance, the debris, with the inflammatory response, which results in a wound in the skin, which then develops into a scar when the body produces excess collagen to repair the damage to the skin.

Although acne scars are the result of a wound, like any other scar, they are also different than other scars in that they are depressed within the skin, rather than on the surface of the skin as most other scars. There are four different types of acne scars: ice pick scars; rolling scars; boxcar scars; and hypertrophic/keloid scars.

Ice Pick Scars

• Deep, narrow scars
• Form pits in the skin
• Most common

Rolling Scars

• Wave-like appearance on surface of skin
• Wide and shallow depth

Boxcar Scars

• Angular, well defined edges
• Most often found on temples or cheeks
• Similar in appearance to chickenpox scars

Hypertrophic Scars

• Raised scars in the same place as the original acne wound
• Reduce in size over time

Keloid Scars

• Overgrowths of tissue
• Expand beyond original size of acne wound
• Rubbery and firm to the touch
• Often itchy

Acne Scarring Risk Factors

Family history is the most important risk factor regarding acne scarring, as genetics influence how easily an individual scars. If an individual scars easily, they are at greater risk for developing acne scars after breaking out with acne. Since severe acne results in a greater risk for developing acne scars, those with a family history of severe acne may be at higher risk as well.

Prevention of Acne Scars

The only way to prevent acne scars entirely is to prevent acne. While a family history of acne, which leads to a higher chance of developing acne, cannot be changed, there are other factors that influence the occurrence of acne that can be managed to reduce the appearance of acne.

The environment individuals are subjected to plays a role in acne development. Dirt, dust and pollutants in the environment can clog pores and increases the occurrence of acne if not properly cleansed. To prevent acne from occurring when environmental risk factors are high, cleansing twice a day with a gentle cleanser is imperative.

A healthy diet is extremely important to overall health. Drinking plenty of water is particularly important to skin health, as adequate hydration helps to flush toxins from the body. Therefore, in order to prevent acne, and thus prevent acne scars, a healthy diet that includes 6 -8 cups of water per day is extremely important.

When acne has already developed, there are still steps that can be taken to help prevent acne scars. Early intervention is one way to help reduce the likelihood of acne scarring. Intervention can include over the counter remedies, such as topical creams and cleansers specifically designed for the treatment of acne, or prescription medications that are more potent than those available over the counter.

If acne appears severe or persistent, the advice of a dermatologist should be sought. It is important that while acne is being treated, do not squeeze the pimples that have formed. Popping the pimple only results in spreading of the infection and often causes an open wound that is almost certain to form some type of scar.

Treatment of Acne Scars

If acne scars have already formed, all is not lost. There are now effective treatments for acne scars, and though they cannot cure the scars entirely, they can reduce the appearance and severity of the scarring. Treatments for acne scars includes: over the counter medications; prescription medication; laser treatment; dermal fillers; surgical options; punch excision and punch elevation; chemical peels; microdermabrasion; and home remedies and treatments.

Over the Counter Medications

There are many over the counter medications that can help to treat acne scarring. These are generally topical products and contain Retin-A and alpha hydroxy acid. The presence of Retin-A and alpha hydroxyl improves acne and also stimulates new collagen formation. New collagen formation improves the appearance of acne scars by helping to fill in the scar that is within the skin, rather than on the surface of the skin. In addition to topical treatments containing Retin-A and alpha hydroxyl acid, the use of sunscreen is also important.

Sunscreen helps prevent further damage to the skin from the sun, and is especially important as the skin is healing from acne. Sunscreen is also important when using topical treatments that contain Retin-A and alpha hydroxy acid, as these ingredients can cause increased sensitivity to UV rays.

Prescription Medication

Prescription medication for acne scarring is generally similar to over the counter medications and treatments. However, medications available by prescription are usually more potent and typically more effective than the over the counter topical treatments. These treatments, containing Retin-A, alpha hydroxy acid, or glycolic acids, can help remove superficial layers of the skin in order to improve skin texture. If severe acne scarring is present, seeking the advice of a dermatologist in order to obtain prescription medications may be the best option.

Laser Treatment

Laser treatment is perhaps the most effective form of treatment for acne scarring. In recent years laser technology has improved greatly, making them more effective and safe than ever. The two main categories of laser treatment are ablative and non-ablative. Ablative laser treatment, or skin resurfacing, removes outer layers of skin and burns away the scar tissue, encouraging collagen in the dermis to tighten and thus decrease the appearance of scars. Conversely, non-ablative laser treatment does not involve injury to the skin. There are many different types of non-ablative lasers available for treatment of acne scars, including the Pulse-Dye Laser, and fractionated lasers.

Non-ablative lasers are generally more accepted as treatment for acne scarring and skin rejuvenation. While ablative laser treatment may help to resurface skin, it also carries a lot of risks. Increased inflammation is noted with the use of ablative laser therapy, and there is a risk of permanent skin whitening.

In addition, while the results from ablative laser therapy used to treat wrinkles are generally significant, the results are not as impressive when treating acne scars. Non-ablative lasers, however, are highly effective in the treatment of acne scars and have quicker recovery times than ablative laser therapy.

Non-Ablative Laser Treatment

Pulse Dyed Laser

• Removes redness of acne scars
• Helps treat keloid scars, flattening and controlling itch
• Topical anesthetic applied prior to procedure
• Treatment sessions last approximately 1 hour
• Repeat sessions every 3 months as needed

Fractioned Lasers

Affirm Laser

• Helps in skin rejuvenation
• Decreases appearance of brown spots, acne scars, and facial veins
• Treatment sessions last approximately 20 minutes
• Repeat sessions as needed

Fraxel Laser

• Improves texture and tone of skin
• Reduces brown spots
• Smoothes wrinkles
• Significantly improves acne scars
• Small injuries, the diameter of a hair shaft, are created by the laser, leaving untreated skin between the injuries, which heals the small injuries by replacing with healthy tissue
• Fraction of skin treated per session
• May be repeated up to 5 times, over a 3 – 5 week period as needed
• Anesthetic cream applied prior to session
• Moderate pain level during procedure
• Pain level similar to that of a sunburn following the procedure
• 2 – 7 day recovery time
• 20% – 70% improvement in acne scarring

Side Effects

• Discoloration of skin (less than 1% chance)
• Texture change, bump or depression in skin (less than 1% chance)
• Infection or cold sore leading to prolonged healing and scarring (rare)
• Formation of small blister
• Redness and swelling

Dermal Fillers

Dermal fillers are injected into the skin in order to push up the acne scar, resulting in decreased appearance of the scar and smoother skin. The patient’s own fat can be used as filler, or synthetic materials can be used. Dermal fillers are most effective on shallow, saucer shaped scars, and are not effective on deep acne scars. The results of dermal fillers are not permanent. Dermal fillers must be repeatedly injected into the same area every 3 – 6 months.

Surgical Options

Subcision

A surgical option, called subcision, is when a dermatologist uses a tiny scalpel or needle to cut beneath the acne scar. This breaks the fibrous bands of scar tissue that creates tension within the skin, and results in depressed acne scars. Cutting the fibrous bands reduces tension and promotes new collagen formation. This procedure is generally repeated monthly. Though relatively safe, subcision may cause pain, bruising and swelling, as well as persistent bumps at the treatment site.

Punch Excision & Elevation

Punch excision and elevation are techniques generally used for deep acne scarring. These techniques involve removing the tissue that contains the scarring and either suturing or replacing the remaining tissue. There are three punch techniques, which include:

Punch Excision

• Biopsy tool is used to remove the scar and its surrounding edges
• Skin is sutured together to heal
• Scar formed from procedure fades after treatment

Punch Excision with Skin Grafting

• Biopsy tool is used to remove the scar and its surrounding edges
• Wound is filled with graft of patient’s own skin

Punch Elevation

• Used on deeper boxcar scars
• Biopsy tool is used to remove the scar and its surrounding edges
• Scar tissue is elevated and reattached, thus diminishing depth of scar and minimizing chance of discoloration from different skin being grafted in its place

Side Effects of Surgical Problems

• Risk of infection
• Redness, swelling

Chemical Peels

Chemical peels involve applying a chemical solution to the skin. This solution is left on the skin for a certain amount of time in order to dissolve tissue cells and encourage the growth of new tissue. The dead cells are removed to show new skin cells beneath, thus improving the look and texture of skin. Some chemical appeals are appropriate for treating shallow acne scars. However, chemical peels are generally ineffective against deep acne scars.

Microdermabrasion

Microdermabrasion removes the dead layer of protective skin cells on the surface of the skin in order to improve the texture of skin, as well as reduce areas of dark pigmentation. While microdermabrasion is successful in removing minor effects of acne, such as darker pigmentation, it is not effective at treating true acne scars.

Home Remedies & Natural Treatment

In addition to medical procedures, prescription medications, and over the counter medications, there are many home remedies and natural treatments believed to treat acne and acne scars. The following are treatments requiring little more than a trip into the kitchen or to a local naturopathic grocery store:

• Paste of sandalwood powder and black gram dal applied to the affected area overnight and washed off with cold water the next day
• Paste of sandalwood and rose water applied to scars, kept on overnight and washed off with cold water the next day (may add milk to moisturize and prevent skin dryness)
• Lemon juice applied to affected area for 10 – 15 minutes reduces dark pigmentation associated with scarring
• Honey, warmed and applied to scars for 10-15 minutes, then washed off with cold water
• Aloe Vera applied to scars

Whether opting for natural remedies or seeking the advice and treatment of a medical doctor, acne and acne scars can be effectively treated. It is important to remember that, as with all issues relating to health, a healthy diet and exercise is essential to overall wellbeing. In the case of acne scars, drinking plenty of water is of the upmost importance and will help to prevent acne and aid in the beauty of skin in general.

In our culture, menopause can best be defined as the cessation of menstrual periods and fertility in an adult female. Often called the change of life, the word, menopause, actually means just that—the end of monthly cycles.

However, this very simple definition of a natural body process requires a good deal more explanation to thoroughly understand what is actually happening in a woman’s body.

Menopause Causes

When menopause occurs, the ovaries cease to produce eggs, which previously could result in pregnancy if fertilized. This happens because the body is producing lower levels of estrogen and other hormones that control female characteristics, such as breast development, menstrual cycles, body hair, etc. Hormone loss can be responsible for any number of uncomfortable or debilitating problems, relating to many different parts of the body.

Alternative Names

Most women experience their last period sometime between the ages of 40 and 60, with the average age being about 5l years. Menopause is said to specifically occur when a woman has been free of menstruation for a period of 12 months. Until that time, she is considered to be in perimenopause, a time span of up to 10 years in which menstrual irregularities and menopausal symptoms may occur.

A woman can also enter into surgical menopause at any age, if the ovaries are removed as part of a hysterectomy. When only the uterus is surgically removed, and the ovaries are left intact, estrogen and other hormones continue to be produced until natural menopause occurs in mid-life. Chemotherapy, as well as some auto-immune diseases, can also lead to surgical menopause.

Test and Diagnosis Considerations

Diagnosing menopause is relatively easy to do, and identifying specific stages and symptoms is usually not a problem either. Generally, doctors use medical history and symptoms to diagnose the onset of menopause. A blood test to measure the follicular hormone and estrogen levels in the blood can be done, but it is not a definite indicator of menopause. Obviously, doctors will do other tests to rule out certain illnesses if symptoms are severe. For example, neurological tests might be called for if memory lapses seem extreme.

It would seem that such a natural body process would be a somewhat painless and easy transition for most women. Unfortunately, the opposite is true. Studies show that up to 85% of menopausal women experience hot flashes, one of the most common, though certainly not the most serious of symptoms. True, some can sail through the period with minimal problems, but some experience these symptoms for the rest of their lives.

Menopause Symptoms

These symptoms can be many and varied, and sometimes it might seem that almost anything can be blamed on menopause. The important issue here is that menopause is a function of the endocrine system, and thus, the entire body is affected, not just a woman’s reproductive parts. Let’s look at a list of probable and common symptoms, and the areas of the body that are involved:

Reproductive Problems

• Decrease in sexual appetite
• Vaginal dryness
• Breast tenderness

Mental Problems

• Memory loss
• Depression
• Concentration difficulties
• Irritability
• Bouts of forgetfulness
• Fuzziness
• Anxiety

General Aches and Pains

• Headaches
• Hair loss
• Joint pain
• Digestive troubles
• Urinary tract problems
• Weight gain
• Difficulty sleeping
• Hot flashes
• Night sweats
• Fatigue
• Heart palpitations
• Osteoporosis

Of course, one might argue that some symptoms would gradually lead to the surfacing of others. For example, if one is prone to sleep loss, then irritability and loss of concentration might result. Any or all of these symptoms could lead to depression, and so on. However, when one considers that menopause is supposed to be a natural body process, it does seem rather overwhelming that all these unpleasant side effects can and do occur!

Risk Factors

Since all women who live into their middle years and beyond will experience menopause, it is in their best interests to be informed about the various remedies for these symptoms. Basically, the remedies fall into four categories: Healthy Living, Home and Herbal Remedies, Further Alternative Treatments, and Drugs and Pharmaceuticals. The first three categories are the most preferred by the medical community, as the fourth one renders the highest risks and costs. Let’s examine each category and look at specific treatments for some of the symptoms.

Healthy Living & Prevention Tips

This category carries the lowest risk, and would be beneficial to anyone, including the menopausal woman. Obviously, there is nothing anyone can do to prevent menopause from occurring, but adopting a healthy lifestyle can do a lot to ease the transition into this new era.

• A low-fat, high-fiber diet that is rich in fruits and vegetables will help maintain balance and help your body to resist those extra 10-15 pounds that often appear during menopause. Drinking lots of water will also help with dryness issues and keep you hydrated.
• Specific foods that help to promote estrogen production are soy, beets, carrots, alfalfa, apples, cabbage and papaya. Eating these foods within a well-balanced diet can help with hot flashes and night sweats.
• Exercise is key to a healthy routine. Walking, jogging, swimming or jumping rope are all simple exercises that cost little, if anything. Yoga and meditation are also excellent, and can help with depression and sleeplessness.
• Avoid alcohol and caffeine as much as possible. If you smoke, stop.
• Make sure that you are getting adequate amounts of vitamins and minerals in your diet, and/or supplements that you take. Vitamins B, C, D and E are especially important for good bone, skin, eye and brain health. Calcium is your best weapon against osteoporosis.
• Try to consistently get 7-8 hours of sleep every night. This will ensure your overall well-being and help with memory problems, irritability and depression.
• Pamper yourself a bit. Treat yourself to a day at the spa, a manicure or a new hairstyle. Shopping can also be very therapeutic and mood-elevating.
• Seek out some new activities or interests. Get together with an old friend, or plan a party. Join a book club, or get involved with church activities—do something new and different, and you won’t have time to be depressed!

Treatment Options – Home and Herbal Remedies

When we look at this category, it seems easiest to divide the remedies into three groups: those that help with general aches and pains, those that help alleviate sexual dysfunction, and those that aid in dealing with memory problems and depression. The herbal remedies fall into two categories: non-estrogenic and phytoestrogens. Non-estrogenic herbs do not produce estrogen, but provide a supportive climate for hormonal glands so that they produce more estrogen. The phytoestrogens, like Black Cohosh, actually do produce estrogens.

Remedies for general aches and pains

By far, the most common complaint among menopausal women is hot flashes and/or night sweats. The drop in estrogen directly affects the hypothalamus, that area of the brain that controls body temperature. Blood vessels then dilate to try to control the heat, and profuse sweating and red, flushed skin are not unusual. Many women report wanting to tear off their clothes to relieve the discomfort. These remedies have been found to be somewhat effective, and not quite as drastic:

• 20-60 mg. of Black Cohosh
• Licorice powder
• Soy (Soy nuts, tofu, tempeh, soy milk, etc.)
• 3-4 gr of Chinese angelica tea (Dong quai)
• Fruits and vegetables rich in vitamin C (broccoli, melons, berries, apricots, etc.)
• Evening primrose oil
• Wear cotton clothing to bed
• Dress in layers
• Use air conditioning in summer
• Determine what triggers hot flashes and try to avoid (for example: alcohol, caffeine, etc.)
• Drink a bottle of beer (The hops contain phytoestrogens)

Another common complaint during menopause involves sleep disorders, which generally translates into a lack of sleep. It is estimated that almost 60% of menopausal women experience insomnia at some point. Some of this may be due to the aforementioned hot flashes and night sweats, in which case some of the remedies for those things might help with the sleep issues. Apparently the fluctuations in hormone levels are what cause the sleeplessness—kind of like a ragtime band where one instrument hits a wrong note causing the entire band to be thrown off course.

Here are some remedies that can be effective when dealing with insomnia:

• Try to keep as normal a sleep routine as possible. Rise and go to bed at the same time every day.
• Keep the bedroom cool and dark.
• Use your bed for sleeping, not watching television or playing video games.
• Exercise as often as possible. Yoga is particularly effective in helping you to relax.
• Avoid alcohol, nicotine and caffeine later in the day.
• Eat a low-fat diet, and avoid foods that are high in carbohydrates late in the day.
• Drink warm milk or chamomile tea before going to bed.
• Dress in “cool” night clothes.

If things don’t improve, see your doctor or a sleep disorder specialist.

Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a serious disease that involves loss of bone mass. Because the bones are weakened, they become brittle and fractures may easily occur, sometimes affecting life style and life expectancy. Menopausal women are at increased risk for osteoporosis because they have stopped producing large amounts of estrogen, which protects the body from bone loss.

Preventive measures, or remedies to offset osteoporosis, should begin well before the onset of menopause. Taking 600 mg. of calcium with vitamin D twice a day, should probably begin when a woman enters her 40’s. Other remedies would include:

• Exercising regularly. Weight-bearing exercise is particularly beneficial.
• Not smoking, or stopping if you do.
• Eating a balanced diet, rich in calcium and green, leafy vegetables.
• Drinking alcohol not at all or in moderation.

Remedies for Sexual Dysfunction

One of the most debilitating effects of a lack of estrogen can be vaginal dryness. This can create a great deal of physical discomfort for a woman in a sexual relationship, as well as damage her self esteem. Hormonal changes can affect the walls of the vagina and the glands that provide lubrication, thus making intercourse a painful experience. Many strides have been made in this area, and the remedies listed below may be helpful:

Several gels on the market can alleviate dryness. Some of the brands are Astroglide, Koromex and K-Y Jelly. Surgical gels are also a good choice as they help prevent bacterial infection.

Gyne-Moistrin and Replens are creams that actually plump, or provide moisture to the vaginal cells, thus relieving dryness. They can be used both internally and externally to provide more comfort during intercourse.

• Prescription hormonal creams and pills will be discussed in the Drug and Pharmaceutical category.
• Vitamins A and E are important in maintaining vaginal health.
• Vitamin E can also help with breast tenderness.
• A Calendula douche can be helpful in treating vaginal dryness.
• The urinary tract and vaginal muscles can be strengthened with pelvic floor exercises.
• Dong Quai and Black Cohosh can help to achieve hormonal balance, thus alleviating dryness.
• Take time to communicate your needs to your partner and be willing to experiment with new ideas in your sexual practices.

Remedies for Depression and Memory Problems

There is little question that all of us experience stress in our daily lives, but when hormones fluctuate during menopause, it can seem overwhelming. It’s no wonder that some women may experience moments of forgetfulness and have difficulty concentrating. Today’s menopausal woman is often a member of the sandwich generation. This refers to raising your own children while taking care of aging parents. Sometimes this occurs in a subsequent fashion, sometimes at the exact same time, but whenever it happens, it certainly adds stress to your life. In addition to all the normal responsibilities that most women shoulder—taking care of family, housekeeping, cooking, working at a job outside the home, financial worries, etc., it is no wonder that many women become depressed when menopause comes along.

There is no magic formula to fix these problems, but here are some remedies that may help:

1. Reach out to others and compare experiences . Join a support group through your church or community, or ask your doctor to recommend one. Studies have shown that support groups can be uplifting and helpful in solving problems or stress-related issues. A support group may also keep you informed about the latest research in specific problem areas. Also, a good online website is Redhotmamas.com.

2. Talk, informally, to other women going through menopause. It helps to not feel alone, and you might stumble on some new ideas that will benefit you. If possible, speak to a woman who is older than you, who has been dealing with menopause for several years.

3. Eat a well-balanced diet, exercise, and try to get 7-8 hours of sleep every night.

4. Certain herbs and minerals can be helpful in improving memory and achieving emotional balance. Vitamins A and B complex and the mineral, Selenium, fall into this category. St. John’s Wort, ginkgo biloba, garden sage and dandelion root also claim to help with depression. Common spices such as garlic, cayenne pepper and ginger seem to have phytoestrogenic properties.

5. Music and dance have proven to be powerful anti-depressants, especially when coupled with aerobic exercise.

6. Exposure to 10-15 minutes of sunlight every day provides emotional and physical benefits.

7. Of course, if you have tried some of these remedies and not had some measure of success, see your doctor. Depression is a serious disease, and should never be taken lightly. Your doctor can determine whether anti-depressant drugs may help, and/or he may refer you to a psychiatrist, psychologist, or other specialist.

Further Alternative Treatments (Supportive Remedies)

Some experts would argue that the following remedies for menopausal discomforts would fit better into the Home and Herbal category, or maybe not in any category at all! However, these practices have been found to be helpful in many instances in reference to pain and supporting emotional well-being. They include:

• Massage
• Acupuncture
• Biofeedback
• Hypnosis
• Aromatherapy

The three categories that we have explored thus far—Healthy Living, Home and Herbal Remedies and Further Alternative Treatments, have almost no, or very little risk, and are relatively inexpensive. The final category, Drugs and Pharmaceuticals, will involve higher risks and greater costs.

Drug and Pharmaceutical Remedies

The most well-known treatment in this final categoy is HRT, or Hormone Replacement Therapy. This provides relief for almost all menopausal symptoms from hot flashes to depression and beyond. Generally speaking, women who have no uterus would be treated with estrogen, and women who still have a uterus would receive estrogen and progestins in a pill or patch form. This was pretty much the Utopia of menopause remedies, but unfortunately, it is now rarely used.

In 2002, the Women’s Health Initiative of the National Institutes of Health completed a study that found that incidences of breast cancer, strokes and heart attacks increased in women that underwent this treatment. Secondary side effects included blood clots, urinary incentinence and gallstones. At this point, the Journal of the American Medical Association recommended that HRT be used for as little time as possible, if at all, in treating menopausal symptoms.

However, Estrogen creams and tablets like Estrace and Vagi-fem are often used to help relieve vaginal dryness and make intercourse more comfortable. Estring is a type of flexible ring that inserts into the vagina to dispense estrogen into the vaginal canal. These medications provide a low dose of estrogen, but it should be noted that some of it is absorbed systemically into other body cells.

Brand Name Drugs

There are now several drugs on the market that are used to treat osteoporosis. Some brand names are Fosamax and Boniva. These drugs are bisphosphonates, which help prevent the breakdown of bones, and thus help to strengthen them. Often they are taken along with calcium and vitamin D. Some side effects include diarrhea, joint pain, weakness and gastric upsets. Injections of these drugs are available for women with esophageal problems.

Menopausal symptoms can be treated with a variety of prescription drugs, some which may seem surprising, given the symptom. For example, Clonidine is usually used to treat high blood pressure, but has been found to be helpful in alleviating hot flashes. Some anti-depressants such as paroxetine and sertraline also make this claim, as does Gabapentin, an anti-seizure drug. And of course, there are many anti-depressants that can be prescribed for mood swings, anxiety and depression.

These drug and phamaceutical treatments carry a higher risk, and generally, come at a higher cost, than the remedies in the first 3 categories. Overall, the medical community seems to feel that a combination of remedies from these categories, using those with the highest risk sparingly, is the best approach to alleviating menopausal discomfort. Research continues in hopes of providing the means to a more comfortable menopausal experience for today’s woman.

Fungal infections, which are also known as mycoses, occur when a fungal agent manages to pass through the barriers that are set up to protect the body and establishes an infection. Fungal infections can be classified according to the part of the body that is infected. A superficial mycosis is an infection that affects the outer layers of skin and hair. A cutaneous mycosis infects the epidermal layer of the skin, which is slightly deeper than the parts of the skin that are affected by a superficial infection. Cutaneous infections can also invade deeper into the keratinized layers of the nails and hair. A subcutaneous infection occurs even deeper in the body, in the dermis of the skin, the subcutaneous tissues, the muscle and the fascia. A systemic infection affects the organs of the body.

The part of the body that has been infected by the fungus will affect the type of symptoms that are experienced and the severity of the condition. A superficial mycosis is usually less problematic than a systemic one, for example.

Different types of fungal infection are given different names. Common fungal infections are athlete’s foot, thrush and other yeast infections, ringworm, jock itch, valley fever and nail fungus.

Despite the differences between fungal infections, they are all treated in similar ways, by the application of an antifungal drug. In the same way that antibiotics are used to treat different bacterial infections, antifungal drugs can be used to treat infections caused by fungi. In some cases, however, the infection may also be treated with surgery rather than simply with an antifungal agent alone.

Symptoms

The symptoms of fungal infection can vary a great deal depending on the type of infectious agent that is involved and the part of the body that has been affected.

Tinea versicolor is a common superficial fungal infection that usually occurs in young patients. It creates small light or reddish brown spots that are mainly found on the back, chest, legs and upper arms. There are two forms of this infection, only one of which causes spots that are visible. Other than the spots, there are usually no symptoms and the infected person remains healthy.

Unlike superficial infections, cutaneous infections can create an immune response in the patient. This can lead to pathologic responses and changes in the affected layers of the skin. Roundworm, for example, presents as round scaly red rings on the skin. Fungal organisms that cause cutaneous infections are known as dermatophytes, while the diseases that they cause are often called tinea or ringworm. Despite the name, ringworm is a condition that is caused by a fungus and not an actual worm. The species of fungus that cause this type of infection are Trichophyton, Epidermophyton and Microsporum.

Types of Infections

Subcutaneous fungal infections are usually chronic conditions. They often begin after the skin has been pierced by an injury of some kind, since this allows infectious fungi to penetrate the skin and establish themselves inside. The treatments for subcutaneous infections are usually more drastic than those for less severe infections.

Systemic fungal infections may be either primary or opportunistic. A primary pathogen infects the body independently of any other medical condition, while an opportunistic pathogen can only cause an infection in a body that has already been weakened by something else. Primary fungal pathogens are most likely to enter the body through the lungs, which is where they generally cause their first infection.

This can then be spread to other organs in the body. Most primary pathogens are dimorphic fungi, which means that there are two different forms in the lifecycle. Opportunistic fungal pathogens can only establish an infection when the defenses of the body have been lowered by some sort of immunosuppressive condition. This could be a disease such as AIDS or a metastatic cancer (one that has spread to multiple parts of the body) or a treatment such as immunosuppressant drugs or antibiotics. Aspergillosis, Candidiasis and Cryptococcosis are all opportunistic fungal infections. Systemic infections are the most serious.

Diagnosis

Many fungal infections cause characteristic symptoms that can be used to make a diagnosis. In some cases, laboratory tests may be needed to rule out any other possible causes of the symptoms and to identify the specific fungus that is responsible for the infection.

Causes

Fungal infections occur when a fungus enters the body and causes an infection. The fungus multiplies within the infected part of the body, and may be able to spread to other body parts. In some cases, the fungus requires some help in order to be able to infect the body. Opportunistic systemic fungal pathogens cannot infect a body unless its immune defenses have already been broken down by another infection or disease, or are being suppressed by a medication that is being taken.

Similarly, some subcutaneous infections can only reach the lower levels of the skin where they can establish an infection when a path has been opened up for them by some sort of injury that has penetrated the skin. Other fungal infections can occur without such help. They simply need to come in contact with the skin, or be breathed into the lungs in order to infect the patient.

Fungi come in a number of different forms. Fungal cells are similar to plant cells, and fungi are comparable to plants. They are neither plants nor animals, however, but form their own separate group, with its own unique characteristics. Fungi do not produce their own energy in the same way as plants, and must therefore find food from other sources. Most fungi break down dead material, but others can infect living organisms.

Major Infections

Fungal infections are named after the species of fungus that causes the infection. The major fungal infections are

• aspergillosis (caused by Aspergillus)
• blastomycosis (caused by Blastomyces)
• candidacies (caused by Candida)
• coccidioidomycosis (caused by Coccidioides)
• cryptococcosis (caused by Cryptococcus)
• histoplasmosis (caused by Histoplasma)
• paracoccidiomycosis (caused by Paracoccidioides)
• sporotrichosis (caused by Sporothrix)
• zygomycosis (caused by Zygomycetes).

Each of these conditions is caused by a specific type of fungus. Some other fungal infections cannot be classified in the same way because they can be the result of a number of different types of fungus: chromoblastomycosis, lobomycosis, mycetoma, onychomycosis, various Tinea diseases, piedra, pityriasis versicolor, otomycosis, phaeohyphomycosis and rhinosporidiosis, as well as a number of infections affecting the eyes, skin, hair and nails.

Tinea infections are the most common type of fungal infection. Athlete’s foot is an example of this type of infection. It affects the feet, causing itchiness and flaky skin. It can also spread to the toenails, causing them to thicken and become discolored.

Candida infections, which are also known as thrush, are also very common. Candida usually lives on the body without causing any problems, but sometimes it can cause an infection of the mouth or the vagina.

Prevention

Many types of fungal infections can usually be prevented by following good hygiene practices. Ensuring that the skin is kept clean and dry can help to prevent fungal infections from affecting the skin. It is also important to wash thoroughly after coming into contact with other people or with animals. Infection can be avoided when using public swimming pools and showers by wearing flip-flops to protect the feet. Regularly cleaning sports clothes can also help to prevent fungal infections.

In order to prevent the development of an internal fungal infection, which could be very serious, antifungal drugs are sometimes prescribed as a preventative measure to patients who are in a high-risk group. Regularly taking this medication can prevent an infection from taking hold. Fluconazole is an example of an antifungal drug that can be used to prevent fungal infections in the body.

Treatments

Fungal infections are treated with a type of drug that is known as an antifungal agent. These may be taken either orally or applied to the skin, depending on the sort of infection that is being treated. Most antifungals work by attacking the cell walls of the infectious fungus. Once these have been damaged, the fungus will die. Antifungal drugs work by discriminating between the cells of the body and those of the fungus, but since there can be similarities between these cell types, the drug may sometimes act on a human cell. This can cause adverse side effects.

There are many different types of antifungal drug. Most of these drugs can be classified into the following categories, although there are also some other topical and systemic drugs that do not fit into one of these groups.

• allylamines
• antimetabolites
• azoles
• chitin synthase inhibitors
• glucan synthesis inhibitors
• polyenes

In order to increase the chances of a drug being successful for the treatment of a particular infection, it is important to choose the right drug to combat that particular condition. Different fungal agents will react differently to particular antifungal drugs. Most fungal infections can be treated by multiple drugs, depending upon which one the doctor believes is most suitable for the individual case.

In the same way as bacteria can develop a resistance to antibiotics, infectious fungi can become resistant to antifungal drugs. When a resistant infection occurs, it may need to be treated with an alternate antifungal drug. It will usually be more difficult to get rid of a fungal infection that has developed some resistance to treatment, since if the first choice drug cannot be used, the second choice drug may not be quite as effective.

Applications of Medicine

Topical application of an antifungal agent, that is application onto the skin in the form of a cream or shampoo, can be used to treat fungal infections of the skin and vagina. Drugs that can be used in this way include amorolfine, miconazole, ketoconazole, griseofulvin and sulconazole. In some cases, an antifungal cream may be used in conjunction with another sort of cream, such as a steroid cream, which can reduce the inflammation as the antifungal cream destroys the infection.

Oral application of antifungal drugs can be in the form of liquids, capsules or tablets. Nystatin and amphotericin are taken by mouth, as either lozenges or liquids, but they cannot be absorbed through the digestive system. Instead, they are used to treat fungal infections of the mouth and the throat. Other oral antifungals do need to be absorbed in order to work in other parts of the body. Antifungal medications that work in this way include terbinafine, which is often used to treat tinea infections in the nails, and fluconazole, which is often used as an alternative to topical treatment for vaginal thrush. It can also be used to treat infections within the body. Both terbinafine and fluconazole are taken in the form of tablets.

In some serious cases, the antifungal drug is delivered in the form of an injection. Injectable antifungals include flucytosine, voriconazole, amphotericin, caspofungin and itraconazole.

Subcutaneous infections may require surgical treatment in combination with antifungal drugs. For example, the infected tissue may be removed in a process known as debridement.

Traditional Remedies

There are many traditional cures and remedies that have been used to treat fungal infections. Some of these have some basis in fact, but others are ineffective. While antifungal drugs are usually effective, unless the fungus has developed a resistance to them, these traditional remedies are usually unable to eradicate a fungal infection. They may help to ameliorate the symptoms of the infection, however, and some remedies can help to keep fungal infections at bay.

A scientific study conducted in 1996 found that a number of essential oils and other substances had some antifungal properties. These included allicin (produced from crushed garlic), citronella oil (produced from the leaves of lemongrass), tea tree oil, coconut oil, zinc (when taken as supplements or eaten in foods such as chickpeas and pumpkin seeds), selenium (in supplements or in foods such as Brazil nuts), iodine, orange oil, Neem seed oil, patchouli, lemon myrtle and palmarosa oil.

More recently, a 2009 study discovered that certain chemicals which are found in carnivorous plants such as the Venus flytrap have antifungal properties. These substances could be used in the future to create new antifungal treatments for fungal infections that have become resistant to other therapies.

It may also be possible to help the body to fight off a fungal infection by taking supplements such as vitamins that are believed to be able to give a boost to the immune system. There is no scientific proof that this type of remedy is effective, however.

Prognosis

The prognosis is good for many fungal infections. They can be eradicated with antifungal drugs and will cause no long-term problems. Other fungal infections can cause serious damage, and may even result in the death of the patient. Systemic infections are the most damaging, and the most difficult to cure.

Fungal infections of the nails, skin, mouth and vagina are very common. They are also easily treatable and are usually resolved without causing any serious problems or spreading to other parts of the body.

More serious internal infections usually occur when the immune system is weakened, and they can be much more harmful. They are also much more difficult to treat successfully. In some cases, systemic fungal infections can be life threatening. Systemic infections can also lead to complications. Cryptococcosis, for example, can result in meningitis.

Complications

Antifungal drugs may cause certain side effects. The possible adverse reactions depend upon the specific drug that is being taken. Antifungal shampoos and creams are the safest forms of treatment and very rarely cause any problems. Some people who are particularly sensitive may develop irritation in the area where the medication has been applied. This is most common with creams that are used for vaginal infections. Oral medications are also generally harmless and can usually be bought over the counter because of this. In rare cases, side effects such as problems with the liver or changes to the levels of estrogen in the body may occur after taking this type of medication. Injected medications can have more serious side effects, and are only used in the most serious cases.

Some people may be allergic to certain antifungal drugs. Azole antifungal drugs have resulted in cases of anaphylactic shock, for example. Antifungal drugs may also interact harmfully with other types of medication. Azole antifungals produce adverse reactions when mixed with immunosuppressants, chemotherapy drugs, calcium channel blockers, tricyclic antidepressants, SSRIs, benzodiazapenes and macrolides.

If a fungal infection cannot be cured then it can continue to cause damage to the body and may spread. Systemic fungal infections can be particularly harmful if they are not eradicated, and may even be fatal.

Cost

There is wide variation in the costs of treatments for fungal infections, since the types of treatments that may be necessary can vary enormously. Some topical treatments for mild infections of the skin can be bought over the counter at a drug store for well under $10. Other types of treatment can cost over $200. There are also various antifungal drugs that fall in between these prices. The most expensive antifungal drugs can cost as much as $600, although these costly drugs will only be required in the most serious cases.

If surgical treatment is required, then this will significantly add to the cost.

The essential oils and other traditional remedies for fungal infections are fairly cheap. They can usually be bought for less than $10 at a health food store or other specialist stockist.

Resources

National Institute of Health

Mayo Clinic

WebMD