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Fungal infections, which are also known as mycoses, occur when a fungal agent manages to pass through the barriers that are set up to protect the body and establishes an infection. Fungal infections can be classified according to the part of the body that is infected. A superficial mycosis is an infection that affects the outer layers of skin and hair. A cutaneous mycosis infects the epidermal layer of the skin, which is slightly deeper than the parts of the skin that are affected by a superficial infection. Cutaneous infections can also invade deeper into the keratinized layers of the nails and hair. A subcutaneous infection occurs even deeper in the body, in the dermis of the skin, the subcutaneous tissues, the muscle and the fascia. A systemic infection affects the organs of the body.

The part of the body that has been infected by the fungus will affect the type of symptoms that are experienced and the severity of the condition. A superficial mycosis is usually less problematic than a systemic one, for example.

Different types of fungal infection are given different names. Common fungal infections are athlete’s foot, thrush and other yeast infections, ringworm, jock itch, valley fever and nail fungus.

Despite the differences between fungal infections, they are all treated in similar ways, by the application of an antifungal drug. In the same way that antibiotics are used to treat different bacterial infections, antifungal drugs can be used to treat infections caused by fungi. In some cases, however, the infection may also be treated with surgery rather than simply with an antifungal agent alone.

Symptoms

The symptoms of fungal infection can vary a great deal depending on the type of infectious agent that is involved and the part of the body that has been affected.

Tinea versicolor is a common superficial fungal infection that usually occurs in young patients. It creates small light or reddish brown spots that are mainly found on the back, chest, legs and upper arms. There are two forms of this infection, only one of which causes spots that are visible. Other than the spots, there are usually no symptoms and the infected person remains healthy.

Unlike superficial infections, cutaneous infections can create an immune response in the patient. This can lead to pathologic responses and changes in the affected layers of the skin. Roundworm, for example, presents as round scaly red rings on the skin. Fungal organisms that cause cutaneous infections are known as dermatophytes, while the diseases that they cause are often called tinea or ringworm. Despite the name, ringworm is a condition that is caused by a fungus and not an actual worm. The species of fungus that cause this type of infection are Trichophyton, Epidermophyton and Microsporum.

Types of Infections

Subcutaneous fungal infections are usually chronic conditions. They often begin after the skin has been pierced by an injury of some kind, since this allows infectious fungi to penetrate the skin and establish themselves inside. The treatments for subcutaneous infections are usually more drastic than those for less severe infections.

Systemic fungal infections may be either primary or opportunistic. A primary pathogen infects the body independently of any other medical condition, while an opportunistic pathogen can only cause an infection in a body that has already been weakened by something else. Primary fungal pathogens are most likely to enter the body through the lungs, which is where they generally cause their first infection.

This can then be spread to other organs in the body. Most primary pathogens are dimorphic fungi, which means that there are two different forms in the lifecycle. Opportunistic fungal pathogens can only establish an infection when the defenses of the body have been lowered by some sort of immunosuppressive condition. This could be a disease such as AIDS or a metastatic cancer (one that has spread to multiple parts of the body) or a treatment such as immunosuppressant drugs or antibiotics. Aspergillosis, Candidiasis and Cryptococcosis are all opportunistic fungal infections. Systemic infections are the most serious.

Diagnosis

Many fungal infections cause characteristic symptoms that can be used to make a diagnosis. In some cases, laboratory tests may be needed to rule out any other possible causes of the symptoms and to identify the specific fungus that is responsible for the infection.

Causes

Fungal infections occur when a fungus enters the body and causes an infection. The fungus multiplies within the infected part of the body, and may be able to spread to other body parts. In some cases, the fungus requires some help in order to be able to infect the body. Opportunistic systemic fungal pathogens cannot infect a body unless its immune defenses have already been broken down by another infection or disease, or are being suppressed by a medication that is being taken.

Similarly, some subcutaneous infections can only reach the lower levels of the skin where they can establish an infection when a path has been opened up for them by some sort of injury that has penetrated the skin. Other fungal infections can occur without such help. They simply need to come in contact with the skin, or be breathed into the lungs in order to infect the patient.

Fungi come in a number of different forms. Fungal cells are similar to plant cells, and fungi are comparable to plants. They are neither plants nor animals, however, but form their own separate group, with its own unique characteristics. Fungi do not produce their own energy in the same way as plants, and must therefore find food from other sources. Most fungi break down dead material, but others can infect living organisms.

Major Infections

Fungal infections are named after the species of fungus that causes the infection. The major fungal infections are

• aspergillosis (caused by Aspergillus)
• blastomycosis (caused by Blastomyces)
• candidacies (caused by Candida)
• coccidioidomycosis (caused by Coccidioides)
• cryptococcosis (caused by Cryptococcus)
• histoplasmosis (caused by Histoplasma)
• paracoccidiomycosis (caused by Paracoccidioides)
• sporotrichosis (caused by Sporothrix)
• zygomycosis (caused by Zygomycetes).

Each of these conditions is caused by a specific type of fungus. Some other fungal infections cannot be classified in the same way because they can be the result of a number of different types of fungus: chromoblastomycosis, lobomycosis, mycetoma, onychomycosis, various Tinea diseases, piedra, pityriasis versicolor, otomycosis, phaeohyphomycosis and rhinosporidiosis, as well as a number of infections affecting the eyes, skin, hair and nails.

Tinea infections are the most common type of fungal infection. Athlete’s foot is an example of this type of infection. It affects the feet, causing itchiness and flaky skin. It can also spread to the toenails, causing them to thicken and become discolored.

Candida infections, which are also known as thrush, are also very common. Candida usually lives on the body without causing any problems, but sometimes it can cause an infection of the mouth or the vagina.

Prevention

Many types of fungal infections can usually be prevented by following good hygiene practices. Ensuring that the skin is kept clean and dry can help to prevent fungal infections from affecting the skin. It is also important to wash thoroughly after coming into contact with other people or with animals. Infection can be avoided when using public swimming pools and showers by wearing flip-flops to protect the feet. Regularly cleaning sports clothes can also help to prevent fungal infections.

In order to prevent the development of an internal fungal infection, which could be very serious, antifungal drugs are sometimes prescribed as a preventative measure to patients who are in a high-risk group. Regularly taking this medication can prevent an infection from taking hold. Fluconazole is an example of an antifungal drug that can be used to prevent fungal infections in the body.

Treatments

Fungal infections are treated with a type of drug that is known as an antifungal agent. These may be taken either orally or applied to the skin, depending on the sort of infection that is being treated. Most antifungals work by attacking the cell walls of the infectious fungus. Once these have been damaged, the fungus will die. Antifungal drugs work by discriminating between the cells of the body and those of the fungus, but since there can be similarities between these cell types, the drug may sometimes act on a human cell. This can cause adverse side effects.

There are many different types of antifungal drug. Most of these drugs can be classified into the following categories, although there are also some other topical and systemic drugs that do not fit into one of these groups.

• allylamines
• antimetabolites
• azoles
• chitin synthase inhibitors
• glucan synthesis inhibitors
• polyenes

In order to increase the chances of a drug being successful for the treatment of a particular infection, it is important to choose the right drug to combat that particular condition. Different fungal agents will react differently to particular antifungal drugs. Most fungal infections can be treated by multiple drugs, depending upon which one the doctor believes is most suitable for the individual case.

In the same way as bacteria can develop a resistance to antibiotics, infectious fungi can become resistant to antifungal drugs. When a resistant infection occurs, it may need to be treated with an alternate antifungal drug. It will usually be more difficult to get rid of a fungal infection that has developed some resistance to treatment, since if the first choice drug cannot be used, the second choice drug may not be quite as effective.

Applications of Medicine

Topical application of an antifungal agent, that is application onto the skin in the form of a cream or shampoo, can be used to treat fungal infections of the skin and vagina. Drugs that can be used in this way include amorolfine, miconazole, ketoconazole, griseofulvin and sulconazole. In some cases, an antifungal cream may be used in conjunction with another sort of cream, such as a steroid cream, which can reduce the inflammation as the antifungal cream destroys the infection.

Oral application of antifungal drugs can be in the form of liquids, capsules or tablets. Nystatin and amphotericin are taken by mouth, as either lozenges or liquids, but they cannot be absorbed through the digestive system. Instead, they are used to treat fungal infections of the mouth and the throat. Other oral antifungals do need to be absorbed in order to work in other parts of the body. Antifungal medications that work in this way include terbinafine, which is often used to treat tinea infections in the nails, and fluconazole, which is often used as an alternative to topical treatment for vaginal thrush. It can also be used to treat infections within the body. Both terbinafine and fluconazole are taken in the form of tablets.

In some serious cases, the antifungal drug is delivered in the form of an injection. Injectable antifungals include flucytosine, voriconazole, amphotericin, caspofungin and itraconazole.

Subcutaneous infections may require surgical treatment in combination with antifungal drugs. For example, the infected tissue may be removed in a process known as debridement.

Traditional Remedies

There are many traditional cures and remedies that have been used to treat fungal infections. Some of these have some basis in fact, but others are ineffective. While antifungal drugs are usually effective, unless the fungus has developed a resistance to them, these traditional remedies are usually unable to eradicate a fungal infection. They may help to ameliorate the symptoms of the infection, however, and some remedies can help to keep fungal infections at bay.

A scientific study conducted in 1996 found that a number of essential oils and other substances had some antifungal properties. These included allicin (produced from crushed garlic), citronella oil (produced from the leaves of lemongrass), tea tree oil, coconut oil, zinc (when taken as supplements or eaten in foods such as chickpeas and pumpkin seeds), selenium (in supplements or in foods such as Brazil nuts), iodine, orange oil, Neem seed oil, patchouli, lemon myrtle and palmarosa oil.

More recently, a 2009 study discovered that certain chemicals which are found in carnivorous plants such as the Venus flytrap have antifungal properties. These substances could be used in the future to create new antifungal treatments for fungal infections that have become resistant to other therapies.

It may also be possible to help the body to fight off a fungal infection by taking supplements such as vitamins that are believed to be able to give a boost to the immune system. There is no scientific proof that this type of remedy is effective, however.

Prognosis

The prognosis is good for many fungal infections. They can be eradicated with antifungal drugs and will cause no long-term problems. Other fungal infections can cause serious damage, and may even result in the death of the patient. Systemic infections are the most damaging, and the most difficult to cure.

Fungal infections of the nails, skin, mouth and vagina are very common. They are also easily treatable and are usually resolved without causing any serious problems or spreading to other parts of the body.

More serious internal infections usually occur when the immune system is weakened, and they can be much more harmful. They are also much more difficult to treat successfully. In some cases, systemic fungal infections can be life threatening. Systemic infections can also lead to complications. Cryptococcosis, for example, can result in meningitis.

Complications

Antifungal drugs may cause certain side effects. The possible adverse reactions depend upon the specific drug that is being taken. Antifungal shampoos and creams are the safest forms of treatment and very rarely cause any problems. Some people who are particularly sensitive may develop irritation in the area where the medication has been applied. This is most common with creams that are used for vaginal infections. Oral medications are also generally harmless and can usually be bought over the counter because of this. In rare cases, side effects such as problems with the liver or changes to the levels of estrogen in the body may occur after taking this type of medication. Injected medications can have more serious side effects, and are only used in the most serious cases.

Some people may be allergic to certain antifungal drugs. Azole antifungal drugs have resulted in cases of anaphylactic shock, for example. Antifungal drugs may also interact harmfully with other types of medication. Azole antifungals produce adverse reactions when mixed with immunosuppressants, chemotherapy drugs, calcium channel blockers, tricyclic antidepressants, SSRIs, benzodiazapenes and macrolides.

If a fungal infection cannot be cured then it can continue to cause damage to the body and may spread. Systemic fungal infections can be particularly harmful if they are not eradicated, and may even be fatal.

Cost

There is wide variation in the costs of treatments for fungal infections, since the types of treatments that may be necessary can vary enormously. Some topical treatments for mild infections of the skin can be bought over the counter at a drug store for well under $10. Other types of treatment can cost over $200. There are also various antifungal drugs that fall in between these prices. The most expensive antifungal drugs can cost as much as $600, although these costly drugs will only be required in the most serious cases.

If surgical treatment is required, then this will significantly add to the cost.

The essential oils and other traditional remedies for fungal infections are fairly cheap. They can usually be bought for less than $10 at a health food store or other specialist stockist.

Resources

National Institute of Health

Mayo Clinic

WebMD

Overview of Morning Sickness

Morning sickness is a condition which occurs during pregnancy that affects approximately more than half of all pregnant women, but it may also be experienced by women using hormonal contraception or hormone replacement therapy. Usually prominent during the early hours of the morning, morning sickness can occur during any part of the day including during the night.

This condition may be experienced only as mild nausea, or it may cause actual vomiting. In only about 1% of all pregnancies, vomiting may become severe enough to cause dehydration, weight loss, alkalosis (a condition in which the pH of the blood is elevated beyond normal and results in hypoventilation as an attempt to balance the pH), and hypokalemia (a condition in which the concentration of potassium (K+) in the blood is low which may result in elevated blood pressure, cardiac arrhythmias, and/or muscle weakness); this severe form of morning sickness is known as hyperemesis gravidarum.

Morning sickness may be one of the earliest signs that a woman may be expecting a child and usually begins around the 6th week of pregnancy, and it seems to cease around the 12th week of pregnancy for most pregnant women which marks the end of the first trimester and the beginning of the second trimester of pregnancy. However, morning sickness may continue throughout the entire pregnancy for some women.

Alternative names of Morning Sickness

• Nausea gravidarum
• Nausea
• Vomiting of pregnancy
• Emesis gravidarum
• NVP
• Pregnancy sickness

Symptoms of Morning Sickness

Nausea during pregnancy which may or may not be accompanied by vomiting.

Causes of Morning Sickness

• Some women are sensitive to the hundredfold increase in the hormone estrogen circulating in their blood.
• Progesterone also increases which relaxes the smooth muscles of the uterus as well as the smooth muscles of the stomach and intestines resulting in excessive amounts of stomach acids which leads to heartburn, or gastrointestinal reflux.
• Hypoglycemia, or low blood sugar, may be to blame for nausea and/or vomiting in pregnancy due to the placenta taking energy from the expectant mother.
• A sudden increase in the pregnancy hormone, HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin), may inevitably cause nausea.
• Increases in the hormone cholecystokinin causes slowed digestion in order for more efficient nutrient absorption to take place both for the mother as well as the growing fetus.
• Perhaps as a built-in defense mechanism against harmful substances, pregnant women tend to experience an increase in sensitivity to odors, which therefore over stimulates the nausea center of the brain.

Risk Factors of Morning Sickness

• A pregnant woman may be at risk for pregnancy-related nausea if she has ever experienced any of the following prior to the current pregnancy: motion sickness, migraines, sensitivity to certain smells or tastes, sensitivity to estrogen in birth control pills, or she has experienced morning sickness during a previous pregnancy
• An expectant woman may also be at risk for morning sickness if she is pregnant with more than one fetus.

Complications of Morning Sickness

Complications that could jeopardize the pregnancy may arise as a result of more severe morning sickness, hyperemesis gravidarum, and include the following:

• Dehydration
• Malnutrition
• Weight loss
• Alkalosis
• Hypokalemia
• Acid reflux
• High blood pressure
• Hypoventilation
• Muscle weakness
• Cardiac arrhythmias

Tips for lessening nausea and avoiding vomiting associated with morning sickness:

• Consume foods that are high in carbs but low in fat.
• Salty foods such as pickles, pretzels, and saltines as well as foods containing ginger can help in lessening and/or preventing morning sickness.
• Avoid greasy, spicy and fatty foods which help create more stomach acid.
• Eat six small meals rather than three large meals per day.
• Have some saltines handy on your nightstand to nibble on 15 minutes before getting out of bed in the morning.
• Avoid an empty stomach which may aggravate nausea.
• Drink water and other liquids 30-45 minutes before or after meals.
• Sip water and/or ginger ale throughout the day to avoid an empty stomach and/or dehydration.
• Sucking on something hard such as candy or ice chips or ice pops may be helpful.
• Avoid known nausea triggers such as foods or smells that seem to aggravate your nausea.
• Expose yourself to as much fresh air as possible versus stale indoor air.
• Take your prenatal vitamins at night with a snack to avoid queasiness brought on by the vitamins.
• Expose yourself to the smell of freshly cut citrus fruits such as lemons.
• Accommodate food cravings (things you want) and aversions (things that aggravate your morning sickness) when possible.
• Pregnant women tend to crave or get nauseated by things typically because their bodies are telling them what they need or what they need to avoid in order to have a healthy pregnancy outcome.
• Consume fruits and vegetables with a high water concentration such as tomatoes, melons, citrus fruits, strawberries, leafy vegetables, and grapes.
• Try the BRATT diet to keep your stomach settled. The BRATT diet is simply made up of bananas, rice, applesauce, toast and tea.
• If the smell of food being cooked aggravates your nausea, have a loved one cook for you, and make sure there is plenty of ventilation such as having a fan on and/or windows open.
• Rest as often as humanly possible!
• Avoid getting overheated which exacerbates pregnancy nausea.
• Try to work in some light exercise such as walking and/or swimming, but don’t over do it.
• Avoid laying down immediately after eating. Try to allow 2-3 hours after eating to avoid stomach upset caused from acid.

Testing and diagnosis for Morning Sickness

There are no specific tests available to diagnosis morning sickness in itself due to the fact that morning sickness is merely a symptom of pregnancy. On that note, a positive pregnancy test may tell a woman the cause of the nausea and/or vomiting she has been experiencing.

However, sever morning sickness known as hyperemesis gravidarum, or HEG, may require further testing in order to rule out other complications in the pregnancy.

Further testing may include the following:

• Amylase
• Blood calcium level
• Serum electrolytes, which can show low potassium or sodium levels in blood. Low levels can mean dehydration or acid-base imbalance.
• Hematocrit, part of a blood count, which may become high due to dehydration
• Liver enzymes and bilirubin
• Urinalysis for ketones and specific gravity. Ketones are a sign of starvation. Specific gravity can show dehydration.
• An ultrasound may also be done to check the condition of the baby and the womb.
• If a woman has abdominal pain or vomits blood, the doctor may do an endoscopy. This is a test where a small tube is passed through a woman’s mouth and throat down to her stomach. The tube has a light at the end, which helps the doctor to look for problems in the stomach.
• Serum for hepatitis testing
• Liver function tests
• Ultrasound to look at gallbladder
• Urinalysis and culture to test for bacteria
• Ultrasound to look for twins or a tumorous growth of the placenta

Treatment Options for Morning Sickness

Herbal & Home Remedies

• Drink a few teaspoons of wheat germ dissolved in warm milk every hour until the nausea subsides.
• Take 1 tablespoon of apple cider vinegar mixed with 1 tablespoon of honey in cold water before bed.
• Suck a piece of peeled ginger root.
• Drink red raspberry leaf tea.
• Drink peppermint or spearmint tea.
• Drink squaw vine tea.
• Drink ginger tea. Make the tea by boiling some ginger root in water then straining it. Finally, add honey to taste.
• Rear motion sickness bands on your wrists where pressure points which control nausea are located.
• Put three drops of lavender essential oil and one of peppermint in a diffuser or humidifier to scent the air.
• Place a cool lavender scented compress on your forehead and a warm lavender compress over your rib cage.
• Have a loved one massage you with a soothing chamomile massage oil.
• Snack on ginger snap cookies made with real ginger.

Pharmaceutical Remedies

Non-prescription morning sickness remedies include the following:

• Emetrol is the only non-prescription nausea medication that’s considered safe during pregnancy.
• For women whose nausea and vomiting is triggered by acid, reflux medications such as Zantac or Pepcid may work.
• According to the FDA, the combination of Doxylamine and vitamin B6 is considered safe and effective for nausea and vomiting associated with pregnancy.
• Doxylamine is available as a sleeping pill under the brand name Unisom Nighttime Sleep-Aid, not Maximum Strength Unisom Sleep Gels which is an entirely different product. Vitamin B6 may be located in the vitamin section of your local grocery store or pharmacy.

Prescription Remedies

Compazine

Possible side effects:

• Abnormal muscle rigidity
• secretion of milk
• sugar in urine
• abnormalities of posture and movement
• agitation
• anemia
• appetite changes
• asthma
• blurred vision
• constipation
• convulsions
• difficulty swallowing
• discolored skin tone
• dizziness
• drooling
• drowsiness
• dry mouth
• exaggerated reflexes
• fever

You should never suddenly stop taking Compazine, due to adverse effects such as a change in appetite, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and tremors. When discontinuing this drug, it is important to follow your doctor’s instructions closely. Your ability to drive a car or operate heavy machinery may be impaired when taking this drug, so take extreme caution when participating in any activities that require full alertness. Take caution when outdoors due to sunlight sensitivity related to the use of Compazine. Avoid direct sunlight and use sun block and wear protective clothing including sunglasses. Also, beware that Compazine may interfere with your ability to shed extra heat, so take caution in hot weather.

Be sure your doctor is aware of any drug you are taking. Compazine may interact with the following drugs: Anti-seizure drugs such as Dilantin and Tegretol, Anticoagulants such as Coumadin, Guanethidine (Ismelin), Lithium (Lithobid, Eskalith), Narcotic painkillers such as Demerol and Tylenol
with Codeine, Central nervous system depressants such as Xanax, Valium, Seconal, and Halcion Propranolol, and Thiazide diuretics such as Dyazide

Tigan

Possible side effects:

• Hypersensitivity reactions
• Parkinson’s-like symptoms
• blood dyscrasias
• blurred vision
• coma
• convulsions
• depression of mood
• diarrhea
• disorientation
• dizziness
• drowsiness
• headache
• jaundice
• muscle cramps

Tigan is contraindicated and should not be used in patients with known hypersensitivity to trimethobenzamide. Stop using this drug and tell your doctor immediately if any of these serious side effects occur.

Conclusion

Once more, morning sickness may range anywhere from mild nausea to severe vomiting. Before using any remedy, whether it be a herbal/home remedy or a medication, always first consult with your physician. Home remedies should be your first line of defense for morning sickness due to adverse effects related to the use of medications. If all else fails, your doctor can help you decide on the best treatment option for your morning sickness. Remember, the healthier Mom is the healthier the baby will be!

What Is Pneumonia?

Pneumonia, rather than being a specific disease, is something of a catch-all term to describe respiratory distress brought on by a number of different causes, all of which have the same end result. The lungs experience potentially hazardous levels of inflammation, usually brought on by bacterial, viral or fungal infection. In some cases, chemicals or accidentally inhaled fluids may also lead to pneumonia.

No matter what the origin may be, pneumonia is characterized by inflammation of the alveoli. The alveoli are microscopic air sacs within the sponge-like tissue of the lungs. Infections or irritants can cause these sacs to become swollen and blocked with fluid or pus. When this happens, breathing is restricted and the body becomes starved for adequate oxygen. Without treatment, pneumonia can worsen significantly, necessitating hospitalization and even causing death. Of the more than three million people who will contract pneumonia, 150,000 will die. That is why early detection, varied treatment options and ultimately, preventative care are important

Signs and Symptoms

Symptoms of pneumonia can progress from very mild to life threatening. It is often mistaken for the flu until the illness worsens to a serious health threat. Most commonly, you’ll have a persistent, phlegm-producing cough in which blood may be present, and shortness of breath. Many people experience chills, sweats and fever, headaches and muscle pain. In severe cases, you may even feel nausea and diarrhea set in.

Because the term “pneumonia” describes a condition that can have a variety of origins the exact combination of symptoms will vary from one case to the next. Your individual health profile is also a pivotal determining factor in how pneumonia symptoms will present themselves.

Who Gets Pneumonia?

In a given year, over 3 million people will get pneumonia with fifty percent of those infected needing hospitalization. Years ago, more than a third of those who contracted pneumonia would die from it. Thanks to the introduction of modern antibiotics, the mortality rate for pneumonia has gone down to 5%, with many people capable of receiving treatment at home.

Those at greatest risk for getting pneumonia are:

The Elderly

People over the age of 65 are at much greater risk. In the elderly population, pneumonia often exhibits much subtler symptoms than in teens and adults. Therefore, it is extremely important to see a doctor if you notice any sings of infection.

Young children

Young children with still-developing bodies may not yet have acquired the full complement of antibodies their immune systems need to fight infection. Parents should be particularly watchful for early signs if their child has a history of respiratory conditions like as asthma. As with the elderly, symptoms of pneumonia in children tend to be milder, and therefore risk being mistaken for flu.

People whose immune systems have been weakened by illness

If your immune system has been compromised by an illness, whether chronic or acute, opportunistic varieties of pneumonia can be a threat. Sources of immunological distress may include things like a recent illness, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (C.O.P.D.), cardiovascular disease, emphysema, diabetes, HIV/AIDS, extreme stress, or even prescription medicines. All of these conditions tax the immune system, leaving your immune system too depleted to resist further infection.

Individuals taking immunosuppressant medicines

Immunosuppressive drugs are prescribed for people who have had organ and tissue transplants and those with autoimmune disorders such as psoriasis, ulcerative colitis (Crohn’s disease), arthritis and multiple sclerosis. All of these are characterized by the body’s immune system attacking its own tissues or cells.

Organ transplant recipients

In the case of an organ transplant, the body may mistakenly react to the new organ as though it is a hostile invader. This erroneous response may cause the rejection of the transplanted organ. By blocking these reactions in the immune system, immunosuppressive drugs protect the new organ, greatly reducing the likelihood of rejection and making such preventative treatment essential to the long-term survival of a transplant recipient.

Autoimmune Disease

An autoimmune disorder is a malfunction of the immune system in which the body attacks its own tissues, or hyper-reacts to substances with which you come into contact. Chronic autoimmune disorders like rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis are usually crippling and can even be fatal. Dulling the activity of the immune system serves to protect the body from dysfunctional internal responses while also reducing the discomfort. Sadly, the almost universal trade off in using such drugs is that they cause increased vulnerability to infections.

People who have recently undergone chemotherapy

Chemotherapy targets cells in the body that multiply rapidly. However, it does so indiscriminately, meaning that non-cancerous cells are also harmed. While this is clearly ideal for halting the growth of fast-growing tumors, it also reduces the number of white blood cells available in the blood stream and lymphatic system. White blood cells, also called leukocytes, serve immunological functions that range from protecting the body from bacteria, fungi and parasites, to limiting inflammation. Since all of these factors commonly precede pneumonia, the additional vulnerability caused by chemotherapy requires vigilance by both patient and physician.

Smoking and Alcohol Abuse

Smoking causes severe damage to the cilia within the nasal cavity and bronchial passages. Cilia are microscopic hairs that act as filters for the airways. They prevent dust particles and other airborne irritants from making their way into the delicate lungs. By beating in a wave-like manner, they gently move natural secretions and irritants out of the airway before they can cause harm. Smoking causes paralysis of these important filtration devices, allowing secretions to build up and block the airways. If these secretions contain bacteria or other infectious agents, they can cause pneumonia.

Alcohol can adversely affect your gag reflex, preventing your body from expelling irritants to the throat, the shared pathway of the digestive and respiratory systems. Alcohol also slows the activity of white blood cells.

Additional Risk Factors

Hospitalization in an Intensive Care Unit

Patients in intensive care units of their hospital are already in a state of acute physical and often, emotional distress that can have a negative effect on their immunity to pathogens. Moreover, should they be placed on artificial ventilation, their risk of getting pneumonia rises significantly. The breathing tube inserted through the mouth bypasses much of the upper respiratory tract where many of the respiratory system’s defense mechanisms reside. It prevents the patient from coughing and can also cause the contents of the stomach to back up and be inhaled accidentally. When these contents contain pathogens or irritate the tissue of the lungs, pneumonia can develop.

Surgery or Traumatic Injury

People who have recently had surgery or any kind of traumatic injury are at increased risk. Their lack of mobility, especially if they have to lie on their back, can make it difficult to cough end expel accumulated mucus from the lungs. Immobility can also impede the proper circulation of lymph through the body. Lymph is the body’s natural cleaning system. It cleans dead cells and pathogens from the bloodstream and tissues. When its circulation is not optimal, your resistance to infection is also reduced.

These issues, as well as the increased presence of antibiotic-resistant pathogens in hospitals may explain why pneumonia acquired during a hospital stay tends to be more severe than other kinds.

Inhaling corticosteriods for more than 24 weeks

Corticosteroids are prescribed as a treatment for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. However, according to research published by Johns Hopkins in the Journal of the American Medical Association, they increase the risk of pneumonia by as much as 46%. Although the exact reason is not certain, researchers at the university speculate that inhaled corticosteroids suppress the immune system.

Exposure to Chemicals or Environmental Pollutants

Those who work in the industrial, agricultural, military or building industries may be exposed to chemicals which cause inflammation within the lungs, making it hard for your body to keep them clear. Living in areas with high levels of pollution can also increase the risk of getting pneumonia.

Ethnicity

The rate of pneumonia infection is three times higher in African Americans than in Caucasians. In Native American populations, that number jumps up to being 5-10 times that of whites. According to the Center for Disease Control, the mortality rate for Native American infants with pneumonia is double that of the general U.S. population. For this reason, many contemporary allopathic medical practitioners recommend vaccinations for those whose ethnicity places them in a higher risk category.

Causes and Types of Pneumonia

Pathogens

The term pathogen refers to any cause of disease, but most commonly refers to infectious agents. These include bacteria, viruses and fungi. Certain opportunistic infectious organisms can cause severe, even deadly, forms of pneumonia and can affect even healthy people. Examples include the avian flu virus (H1N1 influenza) and SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome), tuberculosis, anthrax, and plague.

Community-acquired pneumonia

This refers to pneumonia acquired in places people frequent in their everyday lives. Places like your child’s nursery school, your gym, public transportation and your office can be hosts to two types of bacteria which cause pneumonia. The first, streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common cause of pneumonia. The other, mycoplasma pneumoniae causes the mild form of pneumonia which is usually referred to as “walking pneumonia.”

Hospital-acquired pneumonia

Pneumonia contracted during a hospital stay, called nosocomial pneumonia, is usually more serious than other varieties. Hospital-acquired pneumonia is only diagnosed if pneumonia symptoms present themselves at least 48 hours after you are admitted. One subtype within this category is post-operative pneumonia, most common in patients over 70, who have undergone chest or abdominal surgeries. Another subcategory is health-care associated pneumonia, found in people whose health requires them to go to dialysis centers or chronic care clinics where medications are administered by intravenous drip (I.V.).

Medical Tests and Diagnosis

When to Consult a Physician

Pneumonia can be life threatening. If you suspect that you may have it, it is very important to see a qualified physician before your symptoms become severe. If you have a history of respiratory conditions, it is even more essential that you seek out medical expertise right away, since the early stage symptoms can be quite mild, and easily mistaken for a cold or flu. If you are recovering from a cold or flu which suddenly becomes worse, you should see your doctor to rule out pneumonia. If you are experiencing an inexplicable fever over 102ºF, especially if it is accompanied by chills and sweating, and if you have an ongoing cough or shortness of breath, it is time to enlist professional assistance.

Elderly adults, young children, and all those in high risk populations need quick attention since their conditions can progress rapidly from mild to dangerous.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of pneumonia is made based on several factors. First your physician will consider your health history, particularly whether you have a history of respiratory illnesses. Next, he or she will use a stethoscope to listen to your lungs. Crunchy or bubbly breathing sounds may indicate the presence of fluid accumulation in the lungs. If your doctor detects them, a chest x-ray may be ordered. The x-ray images can confirm with certainty whether you have pneumonia while also allowing your doctor to pinpoint the exact location of the infection. Sometimes, your doctor may also take blood and mucus samples. Analysis of your blood will tell your physician whether your white blood cell count is healthy, while mucus specimens will reveal the exact pathogen behind the infection. Knowing whether the origin of pneumonia was a specific bacterial infection or virus allows your doctor to treat you more quickly and accurately.

How is pneumonia treated?

Treatment of pneumonia is determined by matching the origin of the illness to the proper medication, or other means of healing.

Bacterial

Bacterial infections are treated with antibiotics.

Viral

If a virus caused the infection, your doctor might prescribe antiviral medication. However, it is much more common for no drugs, but plenty of rest and fluids to be the recommended.

Fungal

If your infection was caused by fungi, antifungal medications are available.

It is essential that you take medications exactly the manner your doctor has prescribed. Use the entire prescription to ensure that no remnants of the illness remain in your system.

Side Effects

Side effects from antibiotics, antiviral and antifungal drugs can include stomach upset, anemia, headaches, rashes, kidney damage and liver damage.

Alternative Treatments

Because pneumonia can be life threatening, you should seek the advice of a medical doctor before using alternative care exclusively. Alternative treatments should be complementary to medical care, rather than replacing it completely. In cases when no pharmaceutical prescription is offered, alternative remedies can offer an excellent source of added support and comfort as your body recovers. For individuals who are at a higher risk of getting pneumonia, alternative therapies like herbs and acupuncture are excellent preventative tools.

Acupuncture

Acupuncture uses precise placement of nearly invisible needles to stimulate and balance the flow of bio-electric energy through the body. Its effects bolster immunity, strengthen your lungs and clear excess mucus from your body. Acupuncture practitioners typically have a master’s degree in their art and will do a very detailed exam to determine the best way to assist you. Clinical studies continue to find evidence which supports acupuncture as effective and gentle, and its acceptance in the medical community continues to grow.

Side Effects

Rare. Acupuncture may cause minor, temporary tenderness at the site of needle insertion. Post-treatment, patients may be lightheaded.

Costs

$60-$125 per treatment

Garlic

Garlic is one of the few treatments proven in clinical studies to have an antiviral effect. Since doctors frequently do not prescribe any pharmaceutical medications for pneumonia of viral origin, garlic may be a valuable source of additional support. Herbalists also use garlic to reduce fever and support the cardiovascular system. Garlic supplements should be taken according to a manufacturer’s recommended dosage or the advice of a qualified herbalist. It is useful as a preventative agent as well as a home remedy during an active illness.

Side Effects

Garlic users may notice an odor in the sweat or breath. Garlic may have a very mild blood thinning effect, so excessive intake should be avoided in those who have very low blood pressure or clotting issues.

Cost

$7-$10

Lobelia

Lobelia is a bronchial dilator, meaning it dilates or opens the bronchial passages to ease restricted breathing. It is available in tincture form, with a recommended initial dosage of 10 drops per day.

Side effects

Lobelia is a strong emetic, meaning it can cause nausea in sensitive individuals.

Cost

$10-25

Lungwort

Lungwort is an expectorant, meaning that it clears mucus. In Chinese medicine, it is also considered an emollient, making it a potentially soothing substance. It is known for its gentleness, making it safe even for children. In widely published medical studies, it is praised for potent antibacterial action against strep, staph, and other organisms associated with tuberculosis and pneumonia. When taken in tincture form, 2-4 droppers per day are recommended.

Side effects

None

Cost

$10-25

Preventing Pneumonia

Prevention is the best avenue for avoiding the complications of pneumonia. With more and more treatment resistant strains of bacteria and viruses emerging in recent times, prevention is your most effective line of defense. Any means of strengthening your body’s natural resistance to infection are invaluable. If you have risk factors for pneumonia, like asthma, G.E.R.D., or smoking addiction, resolving those issues will also reduce your vulnerability to infection. For those in high-risk categories, such as the elderly and young children, vaccination may be recommended.

Poison ivy is notorious for causing skin irritation and rashes. When this happens, it is called allergic contact dermatitis. A person will generally experience this because poison ivy has an irritant in it that humans are sensitive to, and it is also found in other kinds of toxic plants, such as poison sumac or poison oak. The irritant that is present in these toxic plants is an oily kind of resin that is called urushiol. This is what causes rashes and irritates the skin in the process.

Though a person will certainly be bothered with the itchiness that occurs from a rash from poison ivy, there is the peace of mind that a rash from poison ivy, poison sumac or poison oak is really never very serious. There are several methods that can be done at home to relieve the symptoms of the dermatitis until it goes away on its own.

Symptoms

A person should suspect that poison ivy is to blame if any of the following symptoms are present:

• Redness
• Itching
• Swelling
• Blisters

Due to the way that a plant generally brushes against a person’s skin, the rash will probably appear to be in a straight line. However, it is possible for the rash to be more widespread if a person brushes against any kind of pet fur or clothing that happens to have urushiol coated on it.

After coming into contact with urushiol, a reaction will develop about 48 hours later, at the most. It has the potential to last upwards of two months, depending. How severe the dermatitis rash is ultimately depends on how much urushiol was involved in the contact.

In cases with more severity involved, there may be other rashes that appear a few days after a person was first exposed to the resin, and it will probably look as if though it is beginning to spread. However, this is probably not the case; it is more probable that the skin simply absorbed the resin at a stranger rate than normal.

The skin will not be affected unless it comes in direct contact with urushiol from the plant. If a person scratches the blisters and they pop, the rash will not spread from touching the fluid. However, if they are dirty fingernails with germs underneath, there is the risk of another bacterial infection.

When to See a Doctor

If any of the following instances occur, it is recommended to see a medical professional for assistance:

• The reaction is widespread or otherwise severe.
• The rash is located on a sensitive area, such as the mouth, eyes or genitals.
• The blisters are beginning to seep pus.
• A fever begins to develop of over 100 degrees Fahrenheit, or 37.8 degrees Celsius.
• The rash remains after several weeks.

Causes

The three main causes of developing a dermatitis rash and the itchiness that follows include poison ivy, poison oak, as well as poison sumac.

1. Poison ivy is a plant that looks like weeds and is actually very common. This kind of green will usually grow as a tall, thick vine against a tree, a bush or a regular plant. There is usually a triplet of leaflets to every stem. Some might have a toothy, jagged appearance to them and some will have edges that are smoother than that. When the seasons change, the leaves might change their color to red, orange or yellow. It is possible for them to show little flowers that are green or berries that are green and white.
2. Similar to poison ivy, there may be triplets of leaflets to every stem of poison oak, which might grow on a plant or as a bush. The leaves look quite like oak leaves and might include some berries which are yellow and white.
3. Poison sumac as two different rows of leaves growing on each stem, with one at the top. It might grow as a small tree or look like a bush.

No matter what the plant, urushiol, the oily resin, is the cause of irritation in all of them. Even if the smallest amount of the resin touches the skin, it may cause a reaction. This is due to the fact that the resin does not dry and is a very sticky substance, meaning that it has no difficulty affixing itself to pet fur, tools, skin, equipment or clothing.

It is possible to get a poison ivy rash from any of the following instances:

• Direct touch. When a person directly touches the berries, the leaves, the roots or the stems of a vine, plant or a shrub, there might be a sensitive reaction.
• Resin remaining on the skin. If the resin gets on the skin by accident and is rubbed in, there may be a sensitive reaction. To illustrate, if a person walks through poison ivy leaves and touches their shoes, it is possible for the resin to get transferred to the hands, from which it may transfer elsewhere, such as the face, depending on what the person touched or rubbed after that.
• Resin on an object. If a person touches resin that was on firewood, clothing or other items, they are at risk of developing a sensitive reaction. Pets are not typically affected by the resin but a person who pets the animal while there is resin on the fur may develop a rash. It is possible for the resin to retain is allergenic state for several years, and this is especially true if it remains in a dry environment. For example, if a jacket is contaminated and put into a closet without having been washed, it might still cause a reaction if a person touches it when taking it out a year later.
• Inhaling the smoke of burned sumac, oak or ivy plants. The resin in the plants are still present in the smoke when it burns, and it has the potential risk of injuring the nasal passages and the eyes.

When a person gets a rash from poison ivy, it is not contagious in itself. This is because the blister fluid does not have the resin and it will not cause a rash to spread. Likewise, one person cannot contract a rash from an infected person unless that person has resin remaining on their clothing and the first person comes into direct contact with it.

Complications

If a person has dirty fingernails and scratches a blistering rash from poison ivy, it can cause a bacterial infection to develop. If this occurs, it may result in the blisters oozing pus. It is necessary to see a medical professional in the event that this occurs, since treatment for such an infection will normally involve antibiotics.

Preparing for an Appointment

In the event that a rash results from poison ivy, there will probably be no need to see a medical professional for any kind of treatment. However, if the rash remains after several weeks or there seems to be pus coming out from the blisters, then an infected person will benefit from a trip to the doctor. It is possible that a person may be redirected to a dermatologist, whose specialties lie with disorders of the skin, but try the primary physician first.

Appointments have a tendency to be brief due to time constraints, and there is plenty of ground to cover, so it is wise to make sure that all preparations are made beforehand. This section intends to showcase some of the best ways for a person to be fully prepared for their time spent at the doctor’s office, as well as what they can come to expect from the visit.

What Can Be Done

• Get a notepad and write down all of the symptoms that have been occurring, even if they seem to not be directly related to the reason for having scheduled the visit.
• Write down all of the information that will be handy to have, such as how much time has been spent in the outdoors, what vacations were recently taken, if a person has been landscaping, gardening or hiking.
• Write down any and all vitamins, supplements and medications that are currently being taken, and write down the typical dosage that is taken.
• Write down all desired questions.

The time spent at the appointment will be limited, so it is best to prepare some questions in advance to reserve time to cover other points. For a patient suffering from a poison ivy rash, some of these questions may be beneficial to ask:

• What is likely causing these symptoms?
• Are there any other potential reasons?
• Will there be any tests?
• How long until this rash goes away?
• Is it safe to scratch?
• Can scratching spread the rash?
• Can the blister fluid spread the rash?
• What kind of treatment is there and which comes recommended?
• Does this treatment come with any side effects?
• How can the itching be brought under control?
• How can this be prevented?

What to Expect

The doctor will probably also have a few questions to ask, as well, such as:

• When the symptoms begin to appear?
• Have any similar rashes occurred before?
• Has the outdoors been visited recently?
• What kind of treatment has already been attempted?

What to Do in the Meantime
Poison ivy rashes will go away in time. However, it can be difficult trying to deal with the itching. Some of the following steps can be done to help alleviate the problem:

• Use some over the counter corticosteroid cream during the initial days.
• Use calamine lotion.
• Take diphenhydramine (Benadryl, others) or any other oral antihistamine that will help aid sleep.
• Soak in a bath with cool water and either baking soda or some kind of colloidal oatmeal substance, like Aveeno.
• For half an hour several times each day, take a cool and wet object and compress it to the rash.

Tests and Diagnosis

More often than not, a rash from poison ivy does not require any further medical assistance. However, in the event that an appointment is made, the doctor will be able to make a diagnosis simply from looking at the rash. There is no need to perform any additional tests.

Treatments and Drugs

Most treatments for poison ivy involve methods to perform at home, with the rash giving away and disappearing within two to four weeks. During that time period, it is possible to use different remedies to help relieve the itching and other symptoms. These may include oatmeal baths, cool compresses and some anti-itch over the counter medications.

Prednisone or some other oral corticosteroid may be prescribed by a doctor in the event that many blisters appear or the rash is wide in location. Other treatments may include an oral antibiotic prescriptions in the event that the site of the rash develops some kind of bacterial infection.

Lifestyle and Home Remedies

After a rash has come to fruition, some of the following remedies have been known to alleviate the swelling and the itching:

• Calamine lotion
• Low potency over the counter corticosteroid creams, including hydrocortisone, which are then applied two to four times each day.
• Diphenhydraine (Benadryl, others), or some other kind of oral histamine, which are known to help aid sleeping
• Half hour long cool and wet compresses on the site of the rash
• Tub soaks with cool water and baking soda or over the counter colloidal oatmeal substance, such as Aveeno.

Alternative Medicine

Outside of the measures that can be done at home, such as taking a bath with some oatmeal, there are other methods that people tend to seek out in order to relieve their symptoms that arise due to coming into contact with sumac, ivy or oak. Some attempted medicine includes:

• Jewelweed. Though a study found it was not effective, it was once used by Native Americans in an attempt to relieve poison ivy symptoms.
• Bovine cartilage cream, with five percent concentration. Studies have shown that if this kind of cream is used on a daily basis, the poison ivy rash can disappear in less than two weeks.
• Deodorants with aluminum ahlorohydrate. When this deodorant is used prior to going outdoors, it can effectively lead to the prevention of irritated skin when coming into contact with poison ivy resin. However, it is still a good idea to fully wash any clothes and skin in the event that contact may have been made.

Prevention

Many people remember the phrase “leaves of three, let them be,” and it is good that they remember such a thing. This is because many toxic plants, poison ivy included, have a triplet of leaflets on each of their stems, and avoiding contact with them is the best way that a person can prevent from catching an allergic reaction.

There is plenty of advice to follow with regards to avoid rashes:

• Make sure to learn and fully be able to identify what poison sumac, poison oak and poison ivy look like. Learn the characteristics of each leaf and where they are most likely to be found.
• Be careful while outside. It is possible to be exposed to poison ivy while hiking, so try to keep on pathways that are clear. Pitch the tent while camping in a clear area without poisonous plants. Do not let pets run through the woods so that they do not pick up the resin from the plants that can be touched. Give the pet a bath with long rubber gloves if it is believed he or she came into contact with resin.
• Use herbicide to destroy any poison ivy that is growing in the backyard using long rubber gloves. However, it is important to note that even a dead plant can cause a reaction on skin, so remember to wash both the hands and the gloves vigorously. Do not burn any of the plants when they are pulled out, because the resin will remain in the smoke and have the potential to injure the nostrils or the eyes.
• If anything should get contaminated or is believed to be, wash it. It is possible to protect the skin by wearing shoes, long socks, long pants and gloves, but if it is believed that these clothes have come into direct contact with the resin in poison ivy, immediately wash them with detergent, preferably in a washing machine. Carefully handle the clothes so the resin does not transfer to appliances, furniture or rugs.
• Wash any and all items that might be contaminated as well, including jewelry, garden tools, shoes and their shoelaces or outdoor gear. If immediate washing is not possible, try to seal them up in a container or a plastic bag so that they will not contaminate anything else that they might have otherwise touched. It is possible for dry cleaning to eliminate the irritant, but it is important to let the dry cleaner know ahead of time that the clothing has likely come into contact with a toxic plant so that they can take the precautions necessary to handle it.