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Low blood sugar, or hypoglycemia, occurs when blood glucose (sugar) levels fall to abnormal levels. Most doctors define low glucose levels below 70 ml/dl on a glucose meter, although symptoms don’t usually appear until levels fall below 60 ml/dl. (If levels fall below 50 ml/dl brain function is greatly affected.) A glucose reading only takes a small drop of blood and is quick procedure that can be performed at the doctor’s office or with a home glucose meter.

Low blood sugar may also be known as insulin reaction, diabetes mellitus, or adrenal insufficiency.

What Causes Low Blood Sugar?

Low blood sugar happens when the body is unable to properly process large amounts of sugar in the blood stream. The pancreas, an organ near the stomach, secrets the hormone insulin in response to a spike in sugar levels, and if the pancreas secrets too much insulin, the hormone will not only deplete the excess sugar, but it will eat into the normal levels as well, robbing the body’s cells of fuel.

Insulin facilitates the transport of glucose through the bloodstream to muscle, fatty tissue, and brain cells, and causes the glucose to be synthesized by the liver.

All cells, especially brain cells, need glucose to function properly. If the brain does not have enough glucose to function properly, it will eventually shut down.

Most of the time low blood sugar is seen in people with diabetes who take regular insulin.

If insulin levels are not properly regulated, sugar levels can easily plummet. In rare cases hypoglycemia is the result of a malfunctioning pancreas or the result of liver disease.

Somewhat ironically, problems with low sugar are often an early indication of the onset of diabetes (high blood sugar).

It can also occur with the use of medications such as beta blockers, pentamidine, and sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprin.

Other disorders can contribute to the occurrence of low blood sugar, including:

• Thyroid disorder
• Adrenal insufficiency
• Pituitary disorder
• Pancreatitis
• Kidney disease
• Liver disease
• Liver tumor
• Pancreatic tumor

In American culture low blood sugar is often a result of too much simple sugars, alcohol, tobacco, caffeine and stress. Carbohydrates (found in grains, sugars, fruits and vegetables as well as white table sugar) are broken down into simple sugars in the digestive system. The sugar is converted to glucose and enters the bloodstream to serve as fuel for the body. The pancreas then secretes insulin to regulate sugar levels. Large amounts of carbohydrates will cause blood glucose levels to rise quickly, causing higher insulin levels to compensate. Although hypoglycemia can be inherited, it is most often a result of a poor diet. This type of low blood sugar condition is referred to as functional hypoglycemia, and is fairly common although rarely diagnosed.

Low blood sugar can also occur with high levels of stress. When a person is stressed, the body releases adrenalin which causes the body to release stored glucose levels. This process happens to provide the body with needed fuel during a stressful situation. However, if those stores are not used by physical activity, the pancreas then secrets insulin to bring down the higher levels of glucose in the blood. The body is now deficient in glucose stores, and symptoms of hypoglycemia may become apparent. Maintaining a highly-stressful lifestyle increases the possibility of recurrent low blood sugar issues.

In other cultures, where diets do not contain high amounts of sweeteners (which easily convert into sugar) hypoglycemia is rarely seen as a byproduct of diet. In poorer economies, although the typical diet may contain high amounts of carbohydrates, the people generally eat smaller portions and burn carbohydrate sugar levels though physical labor.

Symptoms of Low Blood Sugar

An early sign of low blood sugar often manifests as a craving for sweets and starches between meals. If glucose levels get too low, more pronounced symptoms may occur including:

• Trembling
• Numbness
• Nausea
• Blurred vision
• Headache
• Pain in the eyes
• Dizziness
• Insomnia
• Irritability
• Fatigue
• Heart palpations
• Weakness
• Rapid heart beats
• Sweating
• Anxiety

The body begins to respond to hypoglycemia when blood sugar levels reach 70 ml/dl, although you may not notice symptoms at this time. Insulin production also decreases as the body attempts to keep blood sugar levels from dropping further. Although it varies from person to person, most people will notice symptoms once blood sugar levels drop into the 60’s.

If the symptoms are ignored and blood glucose levels drop below 50 ml/dl brain function is affected. Symptoms then include:

• Behavioral changes
• Confusion
• Drowsiness
• Seizures
• Coma

Tests and Diagnostics

If you believe you are experiencing the symptoms of hypoglycemia, a simple blood test can be conducted in your doctor’s office. (It can also be easily tested using a home glucose meter). A low glucose reading in conjunction with any or all of the symptoms of low blood sugar usually serves as a diagnosis for the disorder in a person who does not have diabetes.

Hypoglycemia is also diagnosed by three key features known as Whipple’s triad. They are:

• Symptoms consistent with hypoglycemia.
• Low plasma glucose concentration.
• Relief of symptoms after the plasma glucose level is raised.

The doctor may perform a glucose tolerance test, or take a blood sugar reading after an overnight fast.

Risk Factors

If the symptoms of hypoglycemia are ignored, serious consequences can occur. The brain relies on glucose for fuel, but if the fuel source is not available the body is able to produce an artificial energy source known as keytones. However, keytones are used only when the body is under sever glucose depletions and can cause some damage to brain cells. Once the body can no longer make keytones and there is no glucose for fuel, the brain will shut down.

Individuals at a higher risk for hypoglycemia:

• Diabetics on a tightly controlled insulin regimen
• People with pancreatic or liver diseases, tumors or other health issues
• Children born to diabetic mothers
• People with endocrine disorders
• People on low carbohydrate diets
• Alcoholics

Prevention Tips

If hypoglycemia is caused by diabetes, talk to your doctor about regulating insulin levels to keep blood glucose levels from dropping too low. Never take more medication than is prescribed, as this can lead to serious issues of low blood sugar.

If you notice symptoms of low blood sugar on a regular basis and you are not a diabetic, the most likely cause is a poor diet, which can be easily prevented. Do not skip meals, eat healthy snacks between meals if needed, and avoid large amounts of alcohol, sugars and carbohydrates. Excessive exercise without adequate food intake can also cause blood sugar levels to drop below normal.

Treatment Options:

Home Remedies:

Vitamins:

Some vitamins are effective in the treatment of hypoglycemia. These are vitamins E, C and B complex. Vitamins C and B increase the body’s tolerance of sugar and carbohydrates, Pantothenic acid and vitamin B6 build back the body’s supply of adrenals, which are often depleted by low sugar levels. Vitamin E improves glycogen storage in tissue and muscles.

Adding foods rich in these vitamins can help control the occurrence of low blood sugar. Supplements are also readily available and can be taken with low risks for side effects. Try taking up to 1600 IU of vitamin E, 50 mg of vitamin B6, and large doses (2,000 to 5,000 mg) of Vitamin C daily. It is extremely difficult of overdose on vitamins, they are beneficial for a variety of health issues, and supplements are generally inexpensive.

Apples and Orange Juice:

Typically, any fruit can aid in raising low blood sugar levels, but one small glass of orange juice or two small apples have been found to be the most effective.

The Low Blood Sugar Diet:

People who experience low blood sugar on a regular basis should base their diet on three basic food groups: grains, seeds and nuts, and vegetable and fruits. Supplement this diet with vegetable oils and milk and dairy products. Helpings of carbohydrates such as refined pastas, starchy potatoes and products made with a lot of white flower should be consumed in moderation. Cooked grains are digested slowly and release sugar into the blood stream in small, steady increments. This will help keep blood sugar levels steady.

Try eating 6 – 8 small meals a day as opposed to 3 large ones. The body will receive a steady supply of nutrition without causing blood sugar levels to rise and drop dramatically. Try to include fiber and protein with each meal because they are broken down into sugars much more slowly.

Look for fresh, as opposed to refined, ingredients. The less processed something is, the less likely it is to cause spikes and valleys in blood sugar levels. Things like white sugar, white flower (and items made with them as a main ingredient) should be eaten only in very small amounts, and never alone. Also avoid coffee, sodas, and alcohol whenever possible.

Try to include as many high fiber, low sugar and fat foods as possible. Switch to whole grains in pastas and breads.

Carb or no carb?

With the rising popularity of low carbohydrate diets, people that regularly experience hypoglycemia may think that eliminating carbohydrates will keep them from feeling the effects of rising and plummeting blood sugar levels. However, not all carbohydrates are the same, and it is not wise to eliminate them completely from your diet.

Simple carbohydrates are broken down into sugars very quickly in the digestive system and are more likely to cause spikes in blood sugar (and subsequently spikes in insulin production). Simple carbohydrates can occur naturally or be the result of processed foods. These include:

• Honey
• Table sugar
• High fructose corn syrup

Complex carbohydrates are essential to the diet. They are absorbed more slowly and are less likely to cause spikes in blood sugar. They include:

• Pastas
• Grains
• Potatoes

Proteins found in animal and legume products are also broken down into sugars for fuel, but they generally take much longer in the digestive system and do not contribute to insulin spikes.

Herbs thought to help regulate blood sugar:

• Angostura bitters
• Artichoke leaves
• Gentian Root
• Bilberry and wild yam are thought to aid in controlling insulin levels.

Pharmaceutical Remedies:

For problems with low blood sugar that are not controlled by diet or are a result of other health problems, some medication may be necessary.

Diazoxide (Proglycem) and streptozotocin (Zanosar) are medications that suppress insulin release from the pancreas.

If hypoglycemia is a result of other issues such as diabetes, pancreatic or liver disease, tumors or hormone deficiencies, the treatment of these conditions with medications prescribed by a healthcare professional will alleviate the symptoms of low blood sugar as well.

The costs and effectiveness of pharmaceutical remedies will depend greatly on the individual condition and prescription.

Surgery:

If hypoglycemia is caused by a tumor in the pancreas or liver, surgery may be necessary. If the tumor is malignant and is inoperable, medications may be able to suppress insulin release from the affected cells. A doctor or an endocrinologist can determine the need for surgery on an individual basis.

What is a Urinary Tract Infection?

The system inside the body responsible for making urine and exporting it out of the body is known as the urinary tract. It is made up of the kidneys, bladder, ureters, and urethra. If germs or bacteria get anywhere into this system, and infection can occur, known as a urinary tract infection.

Acute cystitis is the most common type of urinary tract infection, and it is the inflammation of the bladder. These urinary tract infections are often referred to as bladder infections. Urethritis is the inflammation of the urethra, and is another type of urinary infection. Pyelonephritis is an infection of the upper portion of the urinary tract or kidneys, and is a more serious type of urinary tract infection. If a bladder infection is not properly treated, it can often lead to a more dangerous kidney infection.

Women are more likely than men to get urinary tract infections, possibly due to shorter urethras or the fact the urethra is closer in proximity to the anus, which makes it easier for germs to get to the bladder.

However, it is not impossible for a man to suffer from a urinary tract infection as well, and many elderly men are prone to these infections, possibly due to enlarged prostates.

What are the symptoms of a urinary tract infection?

There are quite a few symptoms of urinary tract infections. Some of the more common symptoms include the need or feeling to frequently urinate, although there may not be much urine that empties the body when you do, or dysuria, which is a burning sensation when urinating.

Urine may also look cloudy or possess a foul odor. Blood and bacteria in the urine are also possible symptoms of urinary tract infections. It is also possible that your belly will feel some tenderness or pain as well. Pain on one side of your back underneath your ribs can also indicate an infection, as this is where your kidneys are located. Fever or chills may also be present.

Often with acute cystitis, pelvic pressure, abdominal discomfort, frequent, painful urination, and a low-grade fever may be found. With pyelonephritis, upper back and side pain is common, as well as high fever, chills, nausea, and vomiting. For those suffering from urethritis, burning while urinating is the main symptom.

What are the causes of a urinary tract infection?

Urinary tract infections usually occur when germs or bacteria somehow enter the urethra and continue through the urinary tract by multiplying. The multiplying of the bacteria can cause an infection in areas of the urinary system. One specific type of bacteria that can cause urinary tract infections is Escherichia coli (E. coli), which can be found normally in the gastrointestinal tract.

Since the urethra is so close to the anus, it is easy for E. coli to enter the urethra and travel up the urinary tract. Improper wiping after using the restroom can contribute to this as well. Women should always wipe front to back, not back to front.

Sexual activity is also a major cause of urinary tract infections. Spermicide and diaphragm use may also contribute to urinary tract infections. Women should try to urinate after sexual intercourse to lessen the likelihood of an infection. Some may even go as far as to shower immediately following intercourse to prevent infections. Some sexually transmitted diseases like herpes, gonorrhea and chlamydia have also been considered as causes of urinary tract infections.

What are the risk factors of a urinary tract infection?

Being female is a risk factor contributing to urinary tract infections. It is approximated that at least half of all women will have a urinary tract infection at some point in her life, and many women have more than one. The female anatomy and shortness of the urethra are leading reasons for females having more infections.

Women that are sexually active are also more prone to urinary tract infections. The urethra can be easily irritated during sexual intercourse, leading to infections. Also, those women using diaphragms and spermicides are more likely to get urinary tract infections.

Pregnant women also have an increased chance of infection, since they are at higher risk of developing asymptomatic bacteriuria, which can turn into urinary tract infections. Some women have even found that using feminine hygiene products that contain deodorants cause them to develop urinary tract infections. Women going through or past menopause may also be at increased risk for infection. This may be due to the fact that the loss of estrogen has thinned the tissue of the urinary tract, allowing for bacteria to harbor more easily.

Men & UTI’s

For men, although it is less common to develop urinary tract infections, it is still possible, especially for those that have problems with their prostate gland. Also, men with an uncircumcised penis may be at higher risk for infections. Men that have intercourse with a woman that has some sort of vaginal infection may develop a urinary tract infection, as well as men that engage in anal intercourse. Infections from HIV can also develop into urinary tract infections.

In both men and women, those with kidney issues, diabetes, or that have the use of catheters in their bladder may also be at increased risk. It is even possible that not drinking enough fluids can lead to urinary tract infections. The more fluids that a person drinks, the more times that person will urinate, which decreases the bacteria in the urinary tract. Some have even suggested that hereditary factors may lead to an increase in urinary tract infections.

What are some ways to prevent urinary tract infections?

Numerous tips are available to help prevent urinary tract infections. First, it is important to drink a lot of liquids, specifically water. This will cause you to urinate frequently, which will rid the urinary tract of bacteria. It is also important to urinate when you need to, and not to hold it. Drinking cranberry juice has also been shown to help prevent urinary tract infections. Some choose to take cranberry capsules instead, which seems to work well too. Avoiding constipation can also prevent urinary tract infections.

Specifically for women, you should always wipe front to back when using the restroom. This will help keep bacteria from the anus from entering the urinary tract. Urinating immediately following sexual intercourse is also helpful in preventing infection.

Drinking a large glass of water following intercourse can also flush out bacteria. Changing sanitary napkins often and not using feminine products with certain deodorizers can also help minimize infections.

Men need to make sure to keep the tip of his penis clean, especially if he is uncircumcised.

The foreskin area of the penis can easily trap and be a haven for bacteria, which can then travel into the urinary tract, thus causing infection. By keeping this area clean, it will minimize on the likelihood of bacteria harboring there.

What are some test and diagnosis considerations?

If you or your doctor suspects that you have a urinary tract infection, he or she will most likely take a urine sample. You will first be instructed to clean your genital area and then submit a sample. The laboratory will then analyze the urine sample, which is called a urinalysis. This simple test will show whether or not you truly have an infection.

If you suffer from recurrent urinary tract infections, other tests may be done to determine the cause of these infections. An abdominal or pelvic ultrasound may be used to produce a picture of the upper abdomen or pelvis to look for causes or problems.

A voiding cystourethrogram may be used as well. It is an x-ray that is taken while you are urinating that can detect issues and problems. A cystoscopy may also be used, which allows the doctor to look inside the bladder and urethra. An intravenous pyelogram is an x-ray test that takes pictures of the kidneys and urinary tract, which can also help diagnose problems.

What are some treatment options for urinary tract infections?

For those suffering from urinary tract infections, the typical method of treatment prescribed by doctors is a dose of antibiotics. Some of the common antibiotics used for urinary tract infections are Amoxicillin (Amoxil, Trimox), Nitrofurantoin (Furadantin, Macrodantin), Ciprofloxacin (Cipro), Levofloxacin (Levaquin), and Sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim (Bactrim).

The amount of dosage depends on many factors, and some may only have to take the medicine for three days, while others may continue for a week or more. The doctor may also describe some type of pain management medication for those who are suffering from painful or burning sensations during urination. These treatment options are affordable, and have generic options to keep the cost low.

There are several over-the-counter solutions to pain and burning during urination available at large pharmacy chains like CVS or Walgreens and local pharmacies. AZO Urinary Pain Relief® Maximum Strength tablets contain 97.5 mg of phenazopyridine hydrochloride, a urinary tract analgesic, and a 2-day supply can be had for around $10. Some pharmacies also offer their own generic versions which can be had for about half the price.

If the antibiotic does not seem to help the infection, further evaluation by your doctor may be needed. It may be possible the infection has spread to your kidneys, and would now be considered a kidney infection. There could also be some issues with your immune system that would need to be looked at. There is no surgical option for the treatment of urinary tract infections.

Home Remedies

There are however, many at home remedies for relieving a urinary tract infection. Drinking a lot of water and cranberry juice are probably the most common at home methods. Both of these options are very cost effective and easy to do. Using a warm heating pad on either your back or abdomen may also help with pain management, as well as taking a warm bath or a long shower, which may help as well. It has also been suggested that adding a teaspoon of baking soda to a glass of water and drinking it will neutralize the acidity in the urine, which will ease the pain and symptoms of the urinary tract infection.

Blueberries may also be a natural way to treat, prevent and fight urinary tract infection, as they can fight bacteria much like cranberry juice does. Cranberry juice cocktail has also been shown to work, if you don’t like the taste of pure cranberry juice. Some even choose to take cranberry pills or ActiFruit Max Cran chews instead. Pineapple has also been suggested as a food you can eat to help prevent and minimize infection. Making sure you are getting enough vitamin C is also important, as vitamin C helps keep the bladder healthy and keep bacteria out.

Avoiding caffeine and alcohol will also help minimize the risk of urinary tract infections. Both of these items act as irritants in the bladder, which make an infection more likely. Even using cotton underwear as opposed to other fabrics may help to prevent infections. In case of urinary tract infections, over the counter non-prescription pain relievers will also help with pain management.

All of these home remedies will cost very little and are easy ways to start fighting or preventing urinary tract infections. If you find the at home remedies are not helping, you should see a doctor and consider using antibiotics instead.

What is Obesity?

Obesity is a disease that is overwhelming the American population. Obesity is defined as an excess proportion of body fat to size, more particularly a weight more that twenty percent above the normal weight. Another measure to determine obesity is the body mass index, or BMI. BMI is calculated by multiplying your weight in pounds by 705 and then dividing by your height in inches twice. A healthy BMI is 18.5-24.9. One that is 25-29.9 indicates that you are overweight and a BMI of over 30 is considered to be obese.

Causes of Obesity

Generally, obesity is caused by eating more calories than you burn. In most cases, this is a result of purely eating too much while not exercising enough. While many people believe this to be the only cause, there are many other causes for obesity. The following are causes of obesity in addition to over eating:

Age

When your body ages, your metabolism slows down. This decline means that your body no longer needs as many calories to stay healthy. If you continue to eat the same amount of calories at age 30 as you did as a teenager, weight gain will be inevitable. The best way to avoid this is to lower your caloric intake and remain active throughout your life.

Gender

Females, on average, have slower metabolic rates than men do. Because of this, women tend to be more overweight than men do. In addition to this, menopause causes an additional decrease of metabolism. Men have a faster metabolism thus require far more calories than women do. Because of this, obesity in men is much rarer than in women but it does happen especially with age as the man’s metabolism begins to slow.

Genetics

Believe it or not, many studied have shown that obesity is genetic. Obesity and thinness both tend to run in families. Studies on adopted children have provided evidence for this theory. When studied, children who were adopted tended to have a closer weight to their biological parents than there adoptive parent. Even more shocking, the environment tended to not alter the trend. On average, if your biological mother is obese there is a 75 percent chance that you yourself will be obese as well. This same statistic applies to mothers who are thin as well. However, you can prevent becoming obese even if you are genetically determined to become so.

Your Environment

While genes are indeed a heavy influence on obesity, environment plays an important role as well. Environmental factors include several things. The most important of these is lifestyle behaviors such as how much you eat and your activity level. Also, busy lifestyles can lead to weight gain as well. It is much harder to prepare a healthy meal when there is no time in the day. In these situations, simply avoiding fast food can help significantly in maintaining weight.

Physical Activity

The amount of physical activity an individual receives is a major factor in obesity. Physical activities not only burn calories but also decrease appetite, especially in obese individuals. In addition to this, activities also make the body burn fat as an energy source. The majority of obesity in the world today is a result of decreases physical activity.

Psychological Factors

Psychological factors greatly influence ones eating habits and weight gain. Negative emotions such as being sad or boredom tend to cause people to eat.

Many people who are obese feel that they cannot control how much they eat and feel helpless. In these cases, an individual often partakes in binge eating in which they eat large amounts with no control.

Illness

There are indeed several illnesses that can lead to obesity. One of the most common of these illnesses is hypothyroidism. This is a condition in which the thyroid does not properly secrete the hormones needed.

Thyroid hormone, the main secretion of the thyroid gland, regulates the metabolism.

When this hormone is not secreted at high enough levels, the metabolic rate slows greatly putting the individual at risk for obesity. Depression can also lead to obesity because of hormone imbalances as well.

Medicine

There are certain medications that can lead to obesity. Steroids very commonly cause weight gain among individuals. In addition to steroids, antidepressants seem to have that effect as well.

Risk Factors for Obesity

There are many factors that do indeed place you at a higher risk for becoming obese. As mentioned earlier, genetics can lead to obesity. As well as heredity, gender plays an important role as well. Females are at a much higher risk for developing this disease due to the slower metabolic rate. People who work varied work shifts are also at a higher risk for developing obesity. This is because of the constant change in schedule of eating times as well as the lack of time to prepare a healthy meal. Smokers who are trying to quit are also at a high risk.

While weaning off of the nicotine, the body may crave food in order to replace the drug. You can help to prevent this by lowering your caloric intake during this process. Also, your age greatly affects your weight. People that fall in the age range of 20 to 55 are at the greatest risk for obesity. Your race or ethnic group also plays into the risk factors associated with this illness. The White population has the lowest risk followed by African Americans and Hispanics having the greatest risk.

Diagnosing Obesity

There are several measurements used to diagnose obesity. One of the most common measurements is the body mass index. As mentioned earlier, this is a measurement that tells you your proportion of body fat to your height. A BMI above 30 indicates obesity In addition to Body mass index (BMI) this measurement, waist circumference is another measurement used in diagnosis.

This measurement is taken in inches. In this test, you simply measure how many inches your waist line is. In females, the waist circumference should be less than 35 inches and males should be less than 40 inches. Any measurement above these values may indicate obesity. If either of these values are above normal, you should visit a doctor to have things further investigated.

Preventative Measures for Obesity

It is much easier to prevent the onset of obesity than it is to loose weight after words. The best preventative measure for this illness is to develop healthy eating habits as well as follow a daily exercise routine. Healthy eating habits are best developed by first being knowledgeable about healthy foods and also by keeping a food diary.

Keeping a food dairy will help you to see everything that you have eaten throughout the day and see what you need to modify. Exercise routines do not have to be a vigorous trip to the gym. Rather, participating in a daily walking routine can prove to be sufficient. The following are a few tips to help maintain a healthy lifestyle:

1. If you are not hungry, do not eat. Many people eat when they are bored. This can pack on extra calories in a hurry.
2. Limit the amount of fast food that you eat. If going through the drive through is un-preventable, try to order one of the healthier items such as a salad or chicken.
3. When going out to eat, order small amounts. If you over order, you are more likely to over eat even if you are no longer hungry.
4. Eat slowly. While eating, it takes the stomach a while to recognize that it is full. By eating slowly, you will give your stomach time to tell you that you are full before you have over eaten.
5. Limit the amount of time that you spend on the TV, computer, or video games. During these activities you are not only sedentary but you are also likely to eat.
6. If you are in a family situation, setting up fun activates to do together can increase activity. For example, going in the backyard and playing basketball or throwing a ball can encourage physical activity for the entire family.
7. Keep healthy snacks such as fruits and vegetables in your cabinets at all times. While doing this, also avoid processed foods while grocery shopping. This will reduce the temptation to grab an unhealthy snack.

Treatment for Obesity

There are many different routes that you can take to treat obesity. The least evasive way is to exercise and begin a strict diet. The usual recommendation for exercise is 30 minutes a day. The generic diet prescribed is a low fat, high complex carbs (not simple), and high fiber diet. When taking this route for treatment, social support from your friends and family is key. Another route for treatment is taking medication. Because of the severe side effects of the medications used for this purpose, generally they are only prescribed when life style modifications fail to be successful.

One of the medications used is Phentermine. This particular medication is only allowed for short term use. Increased blood pressure is a side effect of this medication and it should be used with caution and with medical monitoring. Orlistat is another medication prescribed for this purpose. The medicine works by blocking the absorption of dietary fat. Unlike Phentermine, this drug can be used for a longer duration. The side effects of using this medicine include greasy stools and fat-soluble vitamins will need to be supplemented in your diet.

Surgery

As a last resort treatment, surgery can be done to help cure obesity. A gastric bypass is the most common operation done for this purpose. What this procedure does is reduce the size of the stomach and allow food to bypass part of the small intestine. By reducing the size of the stomach, you feel fuller much quicker than if it were at its original size. This alone reduces the number of calories that you intake in your meals. In addition to this, by bypassing part of the small intestines, the amount of calories absorbed is decreased as well. This method of treatment is by far the most successful. While is it indeed the most successful, this procedure should be done at an institution that specializes in this treatment.

There are many risks associated with gastric by-pass surgery and special care is needed to observe for those risks. These risks include infection of the incision, leakage from the bypass created, and pulmonary embolism. Many people also experience gallstones or some other nutritional deficiency such as anemia.

Along with the risks associated, many modifications are required in the way that you eat after surgery. Only ounces of food can be ingested at a time because of the size of the stomach. Also, food must be chewed very thoroughly or pain can result. In addition to this, you are not allowed to drink any fluids 30 minutes before you eat, during your meal, and 30 minutes after you eat. This is because there is no longer enough room to hold both solid foods and liquids. Foods such as simple sugars may need to be avoided because with the bypass, they pass though to quickly causing complications such as diarrhea and increased heart rate.

Definition of Migraine Headaches

A migraine headache is a common type of headache about 30 million Americans suffer from. A migraine is caused by the inflammation of the arteries surrounding the brain. The more swelling and inflammation there is in the arteries, the more severe the pain is of the migraine.

Alternative Names of Migraines – Misdiagnosis of Migraines

Headaches are often confused with migraines. These are a few of the most common types:

• Episodic Tension Headaches: Normally occur less than two weeks out of a month. The pain is generally moderate and affects the top of the head. The difference between a “regular” migraine and a episodic tension headache is tension headache occur in episodes (hence the name). The episodes can last from 30 minutes to multiple days.
• Chronic Tension Headaches: Normally last more than two weeks out of a month. The pain appears to last throughout an entire day. The intensity of the headache may vary, but the pain is constantly there. The pain may start in one area and spend across the surface of the head. This type of headache usually needs prescription medicine, because it lasts for a long period of time.
• Cluster Migraines/Headaches: There are medical professionals who do not believe cluster headaches are migraines due to the short amount of time the headaches last. However, cluster headaches can be present 3-5 times a day. If you suffer from cluster headaches, you could experience a headache 50 percent of the day but at various times. You will feel fine for awhile and suddenly get a headache at other times. These are common symptoms of cluster headache. Since cluster headaches happen so often, we will place them under the migraine and headache categories.
• Sinus Headaches: Another type of headache not categorized under migraines. is sinus headaches. Sinus headaches are not as painful as migraines, but allergies are a trigger of migraine headaches. You can start with a small sinus headache that turns into a migraine. This is very common. A sinus headache affects the facial areas more than the temples of the head. Pain in the cheekbones, nose, and throat are common with sinus headaches.

Symptoms of Migraines

Different people report different symptoms of their migraines. The most common symptoms are: auras (visual disturbances), intense throbbing of a temple, sensitivity to light and sound, fatigue, loss of appetite, and vomiting. Auras are usually beginning signs of an oncoming headache.

However, some patients report no signs of migraines until the migraine is in full blast. The symptoms of migraines can last up to 72 hours after the initial onset of the headache. If a migraine lasts longer than 72 hours, contact your family physician as migraines are often confused with more severe illnesses, such as brain tumors.

Causes of Migraines

The exact cause of migraines remains unknown. However, there is valuable information about migraines that has been proven by medical professions. Here are some known triggers of migraines:

• Fluctuating hormone levels in pregnancy can cause migraines even if the mother does not have a history of
  headaches
• Stress is a key cause of migraines
• Long or strenuous periods of exercise
• Reflections from lights
• Allergies
• Environmental changes – extreme heat, latitude changes, etc
• Malnutrition
• Drinking of alcohol or cigarette smoking

Some physicians believe certain foods can trigger migraines as well. Foods with high sugar content or high acidity are believed to be the main food triggers. These food may include chocolate, red wine, and citrus fruits.

Diagnosing Migraines

Almost fifty percent of migraine sufferers are not clinically diagnosed. If you feel you have the symptoms of migraines, a simple visit to your doctor can confirm your suspicions. The doctor will ask for an explanation of your symptoms and family history. An Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scan may be requested to assure you do not have a brain tumor or brain cancer.

Pharmaceutical Treatments for Migraines

Beta blockers are given to reduce the number of migraine attacks. Propanolol is the most common beta blocker. This type of medicine is taken on a daily basis and may be combined with other medicines if needed. For extreme cases, seizure medications may be prescribed. If your doctor believes you have unusual brain activity, he or she may experiment with seizure medicine.

An anti-nausea medicine prescription is regularly written out for patients who vomit due to migraines. Other medications are not effective if the patient can not keep the pill(s) down.

Over-The-Counter Medicines for Migraines

Over-the-counter medications are often recommended by a physician instead of giving a pharmaceutical medication. Acetaminophen and Aspirin are two common ingredients used in over-the-counter drugs to help treat the symptoms of migraines. Acetaminophen is also known as Tylenol, and it is used as a pain and fever reducer.

There are risks of taking Acetaminophen and/or Aspirin though. Studies have shown Acetaminophen to cause liver and sometimes kidney disease. It should not be mixed with alcohol or illegal substances. The effects of alcohol and illegal substances can be intensified if paired with Acetaminophen. Aspirin is dangerous to children under 18 years of age. Aspirin can cause a life threatening neurological disorder in children. Aspirin and Acetaminophen should not be taken if you are pregnant.

Home Remedies For Migraine Headaches

There are many home remedies for migraine headaches. Each person is different, so some of the home remedies may work for you, and some of them may not.

Sufferers report sleep as the best thing you can do for a migraine. On the other hand, there will be times when your head hurts too much to sleep. In those cases, lay in a dark room with a cool compress on your forehead.

Another home remedy is drinking a cup of soda, coffee, or hot tea. Migraine headaches are believed to lower blood sugar levels. So, a glass of soda or coffee will help raise your blood sugar level. There is a small amount of caffeine in over-the-counter pain relievers.

Taking a warm bath may be used as a relaxation technique. This is a good option for someone that cannot sleep due to the intensity of the migraine. Yoga and meditation have similar relaxation outcomes as taking a hot bath.

Herbal Remedies For Migraine Headaches

PassionFlower is an herbal remedy some people use to treat headaches. PassionFlower contains elements that relax the nervous system. The nervous system is an area of the body affected by migraine headaches. PassionFlower has been used to treat neurological disorders, nervous systems disorders, muscle spasms, body aches or pains, anxiety disorders, and Parkinson’s Disease.

FeverFew is probably the most popular herbal remedy for migraine headaches. Feverfew increases circulation of blood throughout the body, relieving tension left behind from a headache. Feverfew has also been used for missed menstrual cycles, stress on muscles caused by tension, and arthritis.

Another herbal remedy is an ancient Chinese practice. Acupuncture is a procedure where small needles are inserted into the skin at certain pressure points. The Chinese culture believe migraines are caused by an interruption of the body’s natural energy flow. Acupuncture is used to get the natural flow of the energy back to normal. There is a connection of mental, physical, and emotional states in the Chinese belief of “one mind connected with one body”.

Prevention of Migraine Headaches

The easiest way to prevent migraines is to be able to identify the triggers of your headaches. This will take some time to learn, but it is worth learning the triggers of migraines. Everybody’s triggers are different, so you should keep a journal of when you get a migraine. Keep track of the time your migraine started and the time it ended. It is also a good idea to jot down anything that you think could have triggered the headache. The triggers could include a food you ate, a loud noise that would not stop, or an exercise routine you tried.

Stopping the migraine before it even starts is key to preventing migraines. If you have medicine prescribed by a doctor, take the medicine when your first sign of a migraine appears. Do not wait! Even though not as effective, do the same with over-the-counter medicine if you do not have prescribed pills.

Another way to prevent migraines is to get plenty of sleep. Doctors recommend people with migraine history to get 8 to 9 hours of sleep every night. Depravation of sleep is a popular trigger for headaches. You may feel a headache coming on in the evening. When this happens, go to bed early to get plenty of rest before the headache turns into a migraine.

When To Seek Medical Attention

Medical attention is not normally needed for regular migraine headaches. There are unusual symptoms of migraines that need immediate medical attention if the symptoms appear.

Seek immediate attention if:

• Your migraines lasts longer than 48 hours
• You experience numbness or tingling of you arms, legs, fingers, or toes
• Your migraine is worse than your normal migraines. Think of it as, “The worse migraine I have ever had!”
• Vomiting or nausea lasts after the migraine has subsided
• Symptoms associated with strokes. Such as: confusion, seizures, inability to talk, inability to move or walk, dizziness, etc
• Shortness of breath

Contact your physician if you have any of these symptoms. They do not require immediate attention, but are not necessarily common symptoms.

• Increased amount of headaches
• Changes in the symptoms of your headaches. You are the only person that can notice a change in your symptoms. Keep a record of changing symptoms and notify your doctor.
• You are awaken by a headache
• You have to increase your medicine to manage your migraines
• You have loss of appetite or sleep for an extended period of time after your headache is gone
• You experience depression or anxiety when you get a migraine
• You run a fever with the headache. A fever is a common side effect of migraines, but it should not be a high temperature.

In Conclusion

Suffering from migraines is a popular disorder. The easiest way to deal with a migraine is to learn the trigger of the headache. Try to stop a migraine trigger before it starts. Talk to a doctor if your condition changes, or your migraines becomes too much to handle. Migraine headaches should not effect your everyday activities.

The symptoms of migraines vary from person to person. You may not experience all of the symptoms listed in this article. If you do not experience all of the symptoms, it does not mean you do not suffer from migraine headaches. This article is intended to be used as a reference tool. To get a definite answer about your migraines, contact your family doctor.

Cystitis is the medical term for irritation of the bladder. It is most often the result of a bacterial infection, in which case it is also called a urinary tract infection or bladder infection. It can affect either sex at any age but is predominantly seen in adult women. At least 50% of women will have cystitis at some point in their lives while a man’s chances of getting cystitis increase with age as the prostate becomes enlarged and blocks the flow of urine from the bladder. Having the symptoms of bacterial cystitis with no actual infection is known as interstitial cystitis. While benign, interstitial cystitis can be very difficult to treat.

Symptoms

Common symptoms include:

• A feeling of pressure or discomfort in the pelvic area.
• Burning with urination, or dysuria.
• Frequent urge to urinate without much output.
• Blood in the urine, or hematuria. This will cause your urine to look pink, red, or dark brown. This symptom is more common with chemotherapy- or radiation-induced cystitis. Hematuria can also occur after intense exercise.
• Leaking of urine, or incontinence.
• Foul-smelling urine.
• Cloudy urine.
• Low-grade fever.

In young children, new occurrences of wetting accidents can be a symptom of an infection, especially if they occur only during the day or both during the day and night. Nighttime-only accidents are not considered a symptom.

Causes

Infectious cystitis is thought to be more common in women due to their shorter urethras and the closer proximity of the anus to the urethra in the female genitalia. These two things make it more likely that bacteria is introduced into the urethra and make it easier for that bacteria to make its way into the bladder.

Most bladder infections, especially in sexually active women, are caused by the introduction of various strains of E. Coli bacteria into the urethra where the bacteria rapidly spread and reproduce into the bladder. In more recent years,

Chlamydia and mycoplasma bacteria, transmitted through sexual contact, have become responsible for increasing numbers of bladder infections.

Less commonly, cystitis may occur as a reaction to certain drugs, radiation therapy or potential irritants, such as feminine hygiene spray or spermicidal jellies.

Risk Factors

• Use of a diaphram increases a woman’s risk of cystitis. It is thought that diaphrams press on the bladder and keep it from emptying completely, giving bacteria a chance to reproduce in the stagnant urine left behind.
• Pregnant women become more prone to cystitis as the fetus grows and puts pressure on the bladder.
• Use of condoms with spermicide increases the chances of contracting cystitis.
• Not circumcising male infants may lead to cystitis in the first year of life due to a build-up of bacteria under the foreskin.
• Use of catheters, both in the hospital and at home, can increase the risk of cystitis due to the possibility of introducing bacteria into the bladder via the catheter. Long-term use of a catheter may damage the bladder tissue, which also can make you more susceptible to infection and inflammation.

Prevention Tips

Following the recommendations set forth in the Home Treatment section can also help to prevent bladder infections. Women should also be sure to wipe front to back after using the bathroom to avoid introducing bacteria from the anus into the urethra.

If you are prone to cystitis after intercourse, drink extra water beforehand and be sure to urinate immediately afterwards to flush out any bacteria from the urethra. It is also a good idea to avoid using a diaphragm or spermicide for birth control. Harsh soaps, bubble bath, perfumed sprays, and feminine products should be avoided to prevent irritation of the genital area that can lead to cystitis.

Test and Diagnosis Considerations

In men, cystitis is often a cause for concern as it is generally a symptom of an underlying condition. It may indicate an obstruction that is interfering with the proper functioning of the urinary tract.

Tests for cystitis include urine analysis and urine culture. Urine analysis is performed to determine if white blood cells, red blood cells, or bacteria are present in the urine. A urine culture determines what type of bacteria is present. Knowing the type of bacteria helps your doctor tailor your pharmaceutical treatment to achieve the best results.

Treatment Options (Herbal and Home Remedies, Pharmaceutical, Surgeries) side effects, risks, and efficacy of each options, as well as costs. if different cultures use different strategies then we should list some of those as well.

Painful and annoying, bladder infections can cause serious problems if the infection is left to spread to the kidneys, which can cause permanent damage. Luckily, treatment is simple and effective.

Home Remedies

Home treatment of a bladder infection in its very early stages can keep the infection from getting worse, and in some cases may cure the infection altogether. This is the least invasive and most cost-effective course of treatment.

Steps to take are:

• Drink enough fluids to keep your urine light yellow to clear. This will help to flush the bacteria out of the bladder and will decrease irritation in the urinary tract.
• Drink cranberry or blueberry juice. You should not drink cranberry juice if you are taking the medication warfarin (Coumadin), however, as there is a known interaction between that drug and cranberries which can lead to bleeding.
• Urinate as soon as you feel the urge. Do not “hold it” until a more convenient time.
• Do not drink alcohol, caffeine, or carbonated drinks as these can irritate the bladder and are dehydrating.
• A heating pad placed over the abdomen can help to relieve discomfort and pressure in that area.

Herbal Remedies

Many of the well-known anti-microbial remedies, such as Echinacea, do not perform well in cases of cystitis. It is therefore important to concentrate on remedies that are specifically active in the urinary tract. An infusion of fresh yarrow has had good effect in some cases. Infusion of dried yarrow and tincture of yarrow did not produce the same results, however, so it is important to find reliable sources of the fresh plant if this remedy is to be applied.

Another infusion that may give relief is as follows:

• Althaea officinalis rad. – 2 parts
• Zea Mays – 2 parts
• Agropyron repens – 2 parts
• Equisetum arvensis – 2 parts
• Arctostaphylos uva-ursi – 2 parts
• Barosma betulina – 1 part

Infuse one teaspoon of this mixture in 8 ounces of boiling water for 10 to 15 minutes and drink hot 4 to 5 times a day. This infusion combines diuretic, demulcent, and antimicrobial actions.

Dried herbs can often be found in the bulk section of health foods stores for a reasonable price. Herbs can be just as dangerous as chemical medications and some interact badly with medications, so be sure to tell your doctor if you are taking any herbal remedies or supplements.

Pharmaceutical Remedies

If your symptoms do not go away within 48 hours after beginning home or herbal treatment or if they worsen or you develop a fever with chills, belly and/or back pain, vomiting, or the inability to urinate, contact your doctor for medical treatment. The doctor will perform a urine analysis, which will show if white blood cells, red blood cells, or bacteria are present. A urine culture may also be performed to determine the type of bacteria present. If it is determined you have a bacterial infection, antibiotics will be prescribed.

Commonly prescribed antibiotics for bacterial cystitis are:

• Nitrofurantoin: do not take this medication with antacids containing magnesium- trisilicate as it binds with it and affect absorption. Common side effects are nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, headache, dizziness, or drowsiness. This medication may also cause your urine to turn brown or dark yellow. This medication may sometimes cause a rare, yet fatal, lung infection.
• Notify your doctor immediately if you experience chest pain, shortness of breath, or an unusual and persistent cough.
• The elderly may be more susceptible to the side effects of this medication. This medication should not be taken while breastfeeding and only when necessary while pregnant and never within 2 weeks of expected due date.
• Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole: Side effects include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, loss of appetite, or headache. Taking this medication on a full stomach may control nausea. Older people and people with AIDS may be more sensitive to the side effects of this medication. This medication should only be used when necessary during pregnancy and should not be used close to the expected due date.
• Amoxicillin: Common side effects are nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea. Older people may be more sensitive to the side effects of this medication. It should only be taken when necessary while pregnant or breastfeeding.
• Ciprofloxacin or levofloxacin: Common side effects include nausea, diarrhea, dizziness, lightheadedness, headache, or trouble sleeping. If you have had an allergic reaction to other quinolone based antibiotics, you should not take these medications. This medication should only be used when necessary while pregnant and not while nursing.

Symptoms generally improve with a day or two of beginning a course of antibiotics, though you will need to continue to take them for 3 to 10 days depending on your prescription. It is important to take your medication as instructed and to finish the entire course of antibiotics even if you feel better before it is finished.

Antibiotics

Those who suffer from chronic cystitis may be given a low-dose antibiotic to take on a regular basis. Some women find taking a single dose of antibiotic immediately after intercourse helps them avoid cystitis if they are prone to bladder infections after sex. If antibiotics do not give relief to chronic sufferers, some find long-term relief through cauterization of the lining of the bladder using cystoscopy.

During this procedure, a cystoscope is inserted into the urethra and threaded up into the bladder. Tools can be passed through the cystoscope into the bladder to view the lining and take samples. It is also in this way that a cauterization tool can be passed into the bladder to cauterize any actively bleeding or inflamed areas seen through the cystoscope.

Advanced Therapy

Chemotherapy related cystitis is often treated with mesna, which reduces the chance of bleeding in the bladder by protecting is lining from irritation. Headache, flushing, dizziness, drowsiness, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, diarrhea, constipation, sensitive skin, and flu-like symptoms are common side effects of this medication. It is important to drink at least 1 liter of liquid a day during chemotherapy to help flush irritants from the bladder. This type of cystitis generally disappears when chemotherapy and radiation are discontinued.

Pyridium can also be used to control the pain and burning associated with cystitis.

Treatment for noninfectious cystitis depends on its causes. If a chemical sensitivity is causing your symptoms a simple avoidance of the offending substances can bring relief and help prevent a recurrence. Be sure to be gentle when washing the genital area and to avoid douches and other feminine hygiene products that can cause irritation that can lead to cystitis.

Definition of Cough

A cough (the latin word is “tussis,” which lends its name to the suffix of some cough medicines) is a natural muscle reflex of the body attempting to remove some irritation, collection or blockage from the throat or lungs in order to allow for normal breathing and swallowing.

The normal breathing pattern occurs when air is passed through the nose and mouth down through the vocal cords (larynx) via the windpipe (trachea) and into our lungs (bronchi). Once in the lungs, the air flows into smaller air passages called “bronchioles.” At the cellular level, oxygen is added through the bloodstream, where the waste product of carbon dioxide is removed.

When an irritant bothers any section of the respiratory (breathing) system, the nerves send a message to the brain, which triggers the “cough” impulse to clear the blockage. The abdomen and diaphragm push air up past the “epiglottis,” which is a flap of elastic cartilage tissue attached to the root of the tongue that closes the throat. The force of this sudden force attempts to dislodge the foreign irritant.

There are many different cough types depending on the immediate irritant or underlying malady. Some coughs are voluntary, others are involuntary. Usually, a cough is associated with a cold or influenza (flu); but, it could also be a sign of a more serious ailment.

Symptoms

A cough is a natural process; if it is voluntary and removes any foreign irritant, then it is not a cause for concern. When there is an abnormal state of the respiratory system – nose, throat or lungs – a cough will attempt to clear the blockage. General dryness, irritation or swelling of the breathing system can trigger a cough.

Coughs can be grouped by duration, intensity and type of phlegm (also called sputum) expelled; a medical professional can determine the cause of the cough based on these characteristics. A mild cough that lasts only a couple of days is categorized as “acute.” A repetitive cough, lasting more than a month, is called “chronic,” and can be a sign of a more serious condition, like Bronchitis.

Symptoms of a cough can include the following:

• Runny nose
• Sore throat
• Headache
• Muscle aches.

A doctor should be called when the following serious conditions occur with a cough:

• Blue colour in lips, tongue or face
• Coughing up blood
• Exhaustion
• Greenish-yellow or bloody sputum (phlegm)
• Heavy sweating
• High fever above 101 degrees Fahrenheit
• Hives
• Lasting for weeks
• Losing weight
• Patient is younger than three years old
• Stiff neck
• Swelling of throat, neck or face
• Violent Stridor or Whooping Cough.

Causes

Specific Irritants

Coughing is the body’s mechanism to clear the throat passage of any irritant, foreign particle or blockage. Some irritants are airborne contaminants – like dust, smoke, exhaust and smog. The most common foreign particles are food, which can get stuck in the throat, impeding air flow. The common cold or flu can lead to a build-up of mucus that blocks the throat.

Microorganisms including microbes, viruses and bacteria can infect the respiratory system. Allergic reactions to food, perfumes, chemicals or animals can lead to the swelling of throat membranes. More serious conditions can lead to psychological and physical problems with breathing.

General Categories

The following are all possible causes of a cough:

• Acute Sinusitis – Inflamed or swollen nasal passages
• Air pollution – Tobacco smoke, smog or exhaust
• Allergy – Hypersensitive reaction to some chemical, i.e. hay fever, food or pets
• Asthma (Hyperactive Airways Disease) – Bronchial tubes narrowed due to reaction
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) – (Bronchitis, Bronchiectasis or Bronchiolitis) – congestion, infection or inflammation of these major air tubes can be very serious
• Common cold – There is no known cure for this ailment
• Foreign body – Typically, food gets stuck in trachea (windpipe), causing swallowing difficulties
• Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) – Stomach acid flows back into esophagus causing heartburn
• Laryngitis – Hoarseness of larynx due to overuse
• Lung (Pulmonary) problems – These ailments include cancer, edema (fluid) or embolism (blood clot)
• Medication reaction – Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE) inhibitors – Enalapril (Vasotec), Captopril (Capoten), and Lisinopril (Zestril) – are used to treat hypertension (heart disease)
• Pertussis (“Whooping cough”) – Airway infection caused by the bacteria Bordetella Pertussis
• Pleurisy – Inflammation of this lung membrane
• Pneumonia – Lung infection caused by microorganisms (viruses, fungi, parasites or bacteria)
• Post-Nasal Drip – Nose, sinuses and throat produce mucus that irritates throat
• Respiratory Synctial Virus (RSV) – Lung infection and blockage of breathing passages
• Throat Disorders (Croup, Strep, Tonsillitis or Pharyngitis) – Caused by virus or bacteria
• Tuberculosis – Serious infectious disease caused by the Tubercle Bacillus.

Risk Factors

Since most coughs are the result of a cold or flu, a weak immune system is the primary risk factor. Those who are overweight, smoking or experience cold-and-wet conditions for prolonged periods of time are most at-risk for conditions like GERD, lung cancer or pneumonia. Children have weaker immune systems, so they are more likely to get mild coughs.

It is very easy to transmit germs through the air or via physical contact. When someone coughs, the speed of the discharged air can reach speeds of up to 60 miles-per-hour. Sick people should cover their coughs with a handkerchief, tissue or sleeve.

Prevention Tips

“An Ounce of Prevention is Worth a Pound of Cure!”

The best way to prevent a cough is by strengthening your immune system, keeping your environment free of airborne contaminants and eating healthy meal dosages. There are germs everywhere, especially on keyboards, phones and handles that are used by different people. Wash your hands before and after meal preparation, when handling garbage, or cleaning. Using soap and sanitary alcohol cleaners can kill dangerous microorganisms before they infect you.

Other conditions that can prevent coughs include not eating within an hour before going to sleep, staying away from spicy foods, not smoking and reducing weight. Suggestions for avoiding GERD include wearing loose-fitting clothing and elevating your head while sleeping. Some ailments, like the “whooping cough” (pertussis), can be prevented with vaccines: Diptheria, Tetanus and Acellular Pertussis (DTaP).

Test and Diagnosis Considerations

Testing

Mild, acute, voluntary coughs might go away by themselves. Violent, chronic, involuntary coughs might require testing and professional medical treatment that would reveal deeper underlying problems. The following types of tests could be administered for coughs: blood and urine, imaging, scoping, or breathing.

Blood and urine tests:

These will search for common chemicals produced when different ailments are present. A common chemical produced during Asthma attacks is Immunoglobin E; thus, specialists will test to see if this chemical is present in the patient’s body.

Imaging tests:

• The Computerised Axial Tomography (CAT/CT) Scan uses a computer and x-rays to create a cross-directional map of the body for better analysis of the respiratory system.
• Medical professionals can use x-rays on the heart, lungs, or chest to search for serious maladies, like Lung Cancer.

Scoping tests:

These are performed with a small, thin, flexible, fiber-optic camera tube used to detect foreign bodies, blockages and tumours:

• Nasal endoscopy for sinuses
• Upper endoscopy for throat
• Bronchoscopy for windpipe and lungs.

Breathing tests:

These breathing tests measure lung capacity, like the “Bronchoprovocation” challenge, where the patient inhales a medication, like “Methacholine” and the pulmunologist measures the lung response.

A spirometer (peak flow meter) measures the strength of lung capacity as patients blows air into a container. A lung specialist, called a pulmunologist, might administer this test to determine possible lung problems.

Diagnosis Factors

Doctors will ask a series of questions in order to gather information that might reveal the source of a cough, including the following:

• How long has the cough lasted?
• Are there certain times that the cough is more intense?
• What type of mucus is being coughed up?
• What colour is the coughed-up mucus?
• Are you allergic to anything?
• Do you have any history of diseases in your family?
• Do you drink or smoke?
• Are you taking any medications?

A doctor would physically examine the nose, throat and lungs to see if there was any swelling. The intensity, duration and sound of the cough all help the health professionals diagnose the cough’s origins.

Since a cough can occur for so many different reasons, there are a variety of treatments that can be administered. Most physicians will advise patients to drink plenty of liquids and use some sort of cough syrup to lubricate the throat area. Therapy will be carefully conducted as the medical professional watches for how the body responds.

Cough Types

The following cough types are associated with specific ailments:

• Atopic cough could derive through genetic allergic hypersensitivity
• Psychogenic cough (Tourette’s Syndrome) is a nervous “habit” or “tic” caused by mental anxiety
• Dry cough could be Pleurisy
• Barky cough associated with Croup caused by swelling of larynx (voice box)
• Smoker’s cough due to dryness or burning of trachea
• Whooping cough (Pertussis) can be continuous without air being breathed in between coughs
• Wheezing (or Whistling) cough is usually due to swollen airways caused by asthma
• Nighttime cough is due to fluid collecting in lungs while laying down
• Mucus-filled cough could be a sign of COPD

Treatment Options

Herbal and Home Remedies

The purpose of most treatments is to control mucus expectoration, or lubricate the throat. Because coughs are such a common ailment, many families have a storage house of home cures and remedies that are affordable and easy to make. Cool or warm juice can help rejuvenate throat tissue that is becoming raw or prickly. Usually, people should stay away overly acidic orange juice that might upset the stomach. Chicken noodle soup and fibre are favourite foods. Honey and lemon offer energy and a sharp burst of citrus to bust through clogs.

A small amount of brandy can help patients sleep, moistening the throat and killing bacteria. Patients must be careful to continue to drink large amounts of water, since alcohol will tend to dry the body out. Herbal remedies include menthol, camphor, eucalyptus and tea to soothe air passages. Most cough sweets (drops) include a combination of these herbs.

Pharmaceutical

Cough medications aim at reducing the mucus in the throat passages, acid in the stomach or body pains. Cough syrups usually have a combination of medicines for treating coughs.

• A cough suppressant – like Codeine, Dextromethorphan or Quaifenesin – will directly reduce any throat muscle irritation that causes the cough.
• Antihistimines, like Diphenhydramine (Benadryl), stop runny noses, sneezing and the Upper Airway Cough Syndrome (UACS) by freeing up mucus that clogs airways.
• Nasal decongestants, like Pseudoephedrine (Sudafed) clean out sinus conditions (post-nasal drip or a stuffy nose), so that people can breathe more easily.
• Pain relievers, like Aspirin, reduce the headaches and body aches that sap the strength of the cougher. Don’t give Aspirin or adult cough medicine to children.
• GERD can be treated by anti-acid, proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs) – Famotidine (Pepcid), Cimetidine (Tagamet), Esomeprazole (Nexium), Lansoprazole (Prevacid), Omeprazole (Prilosec), Pantoprazole (Protonix), Rabeprazole (Aciphex), or Ranitidine (Zantac).
• Antibiotics can help treat more serious ailments, killing bacteria that can cause the conditions that lead to a cough. Antibiotics don’t help treat the common cold.
• Nasal inhalers, like Ipratropium Bromide (Atrovent), can also be used to relieve congestion.
• Bacterial Pneumonia and Bronchitis can be treated with Azithromycin (Zithromax).
• Corticosteroids can treat Eosinophil Granulocytes.
• Inhaled steroids or a bronchodilator can treat Asthma.
• Analgesics will help fight Pleurisy.

Surgeries

Surgery is the final treatment if a cough is chronic and severe. A sequence of tests should be conducted to verify the source of the cough. Extreme ailments, like a hiatic hernia, might require surgery. Major surgery can require extensive time for the body to recover.

Air Cleaning Systems

Better air cleaning technology has permitted people to purchase a number of systems that can improve their immediate living environment. There are a variety of different air purifier systems – High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA), Ionic and Ultraviolet – that usually work with air conditioning and heating furnace systems to remove dust, mold and allergens from the air. Those who suffer from severe asthma are turning to these air cleaning systems to prevent coughs.

Hot steam via a humidifier can help relieve dry throat conditions that cause coughing. A dehumidifer can clear out air that is so full of water vapour that it is difficult to breathe.

Side effects

Risks

When coughs fail to remove a foreign blockage from the space where air, liquid and food travel, the results can be very serious.

A continual cough can lead to any of the following side effects:

• Back muscle strain
• Dizziness
• Fainting
• Fractured ribs
• Headache
• Insomnia
• Leg swelling
• Lightheadedness
• Lung discomfort or pain
• Pneumonia
• Shortness of breath
• Swallowing difficulties.

When the patient is coughing up blood (hemoptysis), get immediate medical attention. There could be blood in the stomach or lungs. This could be caused by COPD, a lung abscess, mitral valve stenosis, pneumonia, tuberculosis, or Wegener’s granulomatosis.

Efficacy

The efficacy of different treatments depends upon the person, strength of dosage and severity of any underlying ailment.

Costs

Home remedies are the most affordable, cough sweets are very cheap.

Surgery can be very expensive.

Remedies from other cultures

Many African cultures use hot peppers, especially in pepper soup to burn through the microorganisms and mucus that may cause a cough. The herb, “Pelargonium Sidoides,” is found in South Africa; it has natural immune system boosters and anti-inflammatory agents.

The Chinese herb, “Radix Platycodi” is used for clearing phlegm from lungs. “Biao Men Dong” is used for coughs. “Bai He Gu Jin Tang,” “Er Chen Tang,” “Ding Chuan Tang,” and “Chuan Bei Pi Pa Gao” are other natural remedies for coughs.

The liver is one of the most important organs in the human body. As the largest organ inside the body, it is about the size of an American football and weighs 2 to 3 pounds. The liver is located in the upper-right quadrant of the abdomen, under the rib cage. It is composed of two lobes, and each of those are made up of smaller lobules.

Oxygen is supplied to the liver from the hepatic artery, while supporting nutrients are delivered via the portal vein. The portal vein flows to the liver through the intestines and spleen, where it delivers both important nutrients for protein and cholesterol production and chemicals that need to be detoxified.

Functions of Your Liver

The liver has several functions and is considered one of the busiest “factories” in the body. Some of the main functions of the liver are to create components of the blood from raw nutrients, produce necessary enzymes and proteins, balance hormone levels, and metabolize foreign substances in the body, detoxifying it. In addition, the liver plays a secondary role in maintaining the immune system and is responsible for creating bile, which aids in digestion. Because the liver produces bile, it is not only an organ but, medically speaking, a gland. Once the bile is produced, it travels to the gall bladder for storage.

There is no one ailment known as “liver disease.” Liver disease is a generalized term for several different maladies that affects the normal functioning of the liver, the loss of which can cause grievous injury to the rest of the body.

Doctors have pushed to limit the use of the term, in favor of the more specific diseases, but the term continues to persist. Liver disease is also sometimes known as hepatic disease.

The liver is a very hardy organ and the only part of the body that can regenerate itself. Even so, liver disease can cause the widespread failure of the organ once the disease has caused 3/4 of it to shut down. Before this time, the liver will still function properly.

Causes of Liver Disease

Liver disease is a broad category of other, more specific, diseases. These specific conditions that cause liver disease can work alone or in conjunction. One disease, often leads to another, more severe form.

The two most common forms of liver disease are cirrhosis and hepatitis. In cirrhosis, normal liver tissue is replaced with non-functional scar tissue that never heals. If a direct cause of the liver disease can be determined, it is possible to stop it from destroying any more of the organ. Other types of liver disease can damage the organ through inflammation, obstruction of bile, accumulation of cholesterol, decreased blood flow, foreign chemicals, or abnormal cell growth. Here are some of the diseases that are grouped into this category:

• Alcohol hepatitis – Consumed alcohol directly affects the liver and is a poison to it, causing it to become inflamed. Fat deposits can accumulate in the liver due to chronic alcohol abuse, causing malfunction and failure. Alcohol abuse may also cause other, more severe forms of liver disease.
• Cirrhosis – The scarring of the liver and subsequent loss of function. It is considered a late-stage form of liver disease.
• Drug-induced liver disease – Several medications are extremely toxic to the liver and can cause permanent damage. Some of these medications can cause damage at prescribed doses, while others require an overdose or excessive use. Acetaminophen (Tylenol) is one common over-the-counter drug that can cause liver damage. Cholesterol-controlling drugs, known as statin medications, are also toxic to the liver. Other drugs that can cause liver damage are niacin, nitrofurantoin, amoxicillin, tetracycline, isoniazid, methotrexate, and disulfiram. Additionally, some natural herbs and herbal remedies can cause liver disease. Herbal or natural plants causing liver disease are ma-huang, kava-kava, and many types of poisonous mushrooms.
• Hepatitis A – There are five types of hepatitis. Type A is a caused by a virus that is generally transmitted via accidental ingestion of feces. It causes serious inflammation that may resolve itself. A preventative vaccine exists for hepatitis A.
• Hepatitis B – This type of hepatitis spreads through direct contact of bodily fluids (shared needles, blood transfusions, sex). It can become chronic and lead to cirrhosis or even cancer. A vaccine also exists for hepatitis B.
• Hepatitis C – This type is also spread via direct transmission through bodily fluids. It is a chronic illness that often leads to cirrhosis or cancer. No vaccine exists for hepatitis C.
• Hepatitis D – This is caused by a virus that is transmitted concurrently with the hepatitis B virus. The D virus cannot live without the presence of the B virus.
• Hepatitis E – Hepatitis E can be transmitted through food and water that has been contaminated.
• Viral liver disease – Other than the hepatitis virus, several different viral infections can cause liver damage, including mononucleosis (Epstein-Barr), adenovirus, and cytomegalovirus.
• Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease – This disease causes fatty deposits to collect in the liver that interrupt its normal functioning.
• Hemochromatosis – This is a disorder in which the body has a problem metabolizing iron, causing it to build up. The extra iron can get caught in the liver, among other organs, leading to inflammation and failure.
• Liver cancer
• Wilson’s disease – Wilson’s disease is a genetic disorder like hemochromatosis, except it affects the body’s ability to metabolize copper.
• Gilbert’s syndrome – This is a common disease, affecting up to 7% of all people in North America. It causes abnormal metabolizing of bilirubin. Gilbert’s usually causes no major harm, no symptoms, and often requires no treatment.
• Budd Chiari syndrome – This condition causes blood clots to build in the hepatic vein, decreasing blood flow through the organ. It can both increase blood pressure and lead to more serious forms of liver disease. Budd Chiari syndrome has several causes, including pregnancy, sickle cell anemia, and inflammatory bowel disease.
• Congestive heart failure – While congestive heart failure is more detrimental to the circulatory system, it can also adversely affect the liver.
• Bile obstruction – If bile becomes obstructed from the liver to the gall bladder or from the gall bladder to the intestine, the liver can become inflamed. The most common cause of bile obstruction is gallstones. Some people also have a congenital deformation in the bile ducts that can cause obstruction.

Symptoms of Liver Disease

Liver disease has several symptoms that are in common, no matter the exact cause:

• Abdominal pain
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Jaundice – an apparent yellowing of the skin caused by elevated bilirubin.
• Weakness
• Fatigue
• Weight loss

If the liver disease is caused by or develops into cirrhosis, the following symptoms can occur in addition to the general symptoms:

• Bruising becomes easier due to a decrease in the ability of the blood to clot.
• A buildup of bile can leave salt deposits in the skin, causing itching.
• An imbalance of hormones may lead to gynecomastia (enlarged breasts) in men.
• Hormonal imbalance may also cause a decrease in libido or impotence in men.
• Rising levels of ammonia in the body may cause confusion or lethargy.
• Decreased production of proteins caused ascites, an accumulation of fluid in the abdomen.
• Decreased protein production can also lead to muscle degeneration.
• Increased pressure in the liver can lead to a slowing of blood flow. This causes blood vessels to swell, leading to varicose veins along the digestive tract.

Risk Factors for Contracting Liver Disease

Several different risk factors exist that can lead to liver disease. Some of the factors can be avoided and others are genetics.

• Liver diseases caused by direct bodily fluid contact have higher rates of incidence in people who share unsterilized needles for intravenous drug use or unprotected sex. Some people have also been known to contract hepatitis from dirty tattooing equipment.
• Alcohol abuse is one of the leading causes of liver disease.
• Exposure to toxic chemicals can cause a buildup of the chemicals in the liver as it tries to detoxify the body.
• Some forms of liver disease are genetic, such as hemochromatosis and Wilson’s disease. Those with a family history of these diseases are more likely to have them themselves.
• Acetaminophen (Tylenol) is highly toxic to the liver. Excessive use and overdosing can lead to liver disease or liver failure.
• Taking medications that cause blood vessels to narrow can lead to liver disease. Birth control pills have been linked contracting liver disease.
• While smoking is thought of more in its ability to cause lung-related problems, it is also attached to liver disease.

Liver Disease Prevention Tips

Some forms of liver disease are completely preventable, while nothing can be done for genetic liver disease. Here are some things that can be done to help prevent liver disease:

• Drink only in moderation. Alcohol abuse is the leading cause of liver disease. No evidence exists linking low or moderate alcohol use to liver disease, but abuse can greatly affect the liver.
• Minimizing direct contact with other people’s body fluids greatly reduces the chances of contracting liver disease. Any needles used to break the skin should be sterilized and not have been used by another person.
• Always use a condom when engaging in sexual intercourse.
• Avoid having tattoos done by anyone who is not a licensed professional. Unsterilized tattoo equipment can spread hepatitis.
• Vaccinations for hepatitis A and hepatitis B are available and prevent transmission of the disease.
• Fatty liver disease can be prevented by eating a healthy, balanced diet and maintaining a schedule of regular exercise.

Diagnosis of Liver Disease

Since liver disease is an internal disorder, it can only be diagnosed by a health professional. Several blood tests exist to determine the presence of liver disease.

Additionally, a doctor will use a medical history, questionnaire, and observation of symptoms. Examination of the entire body is usually done as part of the diagnosis. Here are the blood tests made specifically to detect liver disease:

• AST and ALT – These transaminase chemicals are released by the liver when it is inflamed.
• CCT and alkaline phosphate – These chemicals are released by the lining of the bile ducts and can indicate liver disease.
• Bilirubin – High levels of Bilirubin are released when the liver is diseased.
• Protein and albumen – Both protein and albumen levels are affected by liver disease.

Some other blood tests are not made specifically to detect liver disease, but can be useful in the diagnosis:

• Complete blood count – A CBC can show a low blood cell count that is indicative of late-stage liver disease.
• INR – This detects the ability of the blood to clot, which is affected by liver disease.
• Lipase – This can detect an inflamed pancreas that could be the result of liver disease.
• Electrolytes, creatine, and BUN can be assessed to determine if the kidneys are functioning properly.
• Increased ammonia levels can show liver disease.

In addition to blood tests, some physicians prefer to use imaging devices to create viewable images of the liver and other organs.

• CT scan – This is a computerized axial tomography image of the internal organs.
• MRI scan – An MRI is a magnetic resonance imaging technique.
• Ultrasound – Ultrasound uses sound waves to create an image of internal organs. This is commonly used on the bile ducts and gallbladder.

The last procedure that is used in determining liver disease is a liver biopsy. A long needle is inserted through the chest to pull out a small sample of liver tissue for examination. This can be used to help determine a specific liver disease once general liver disease has been diagnosed.

Treatment of Liver Disease

Since liver disease has many different causes and is made up by many different specific diseases, treatments can vary greatly. Hepatitis A treatment consists of keeping the body hydrated while the immune system does most of the work in clearing it up. If gallstones are the cause of the liver disease, passing them will relieve the disease and the liver will heal itself. If they cannot be passed, then surgical removal is necessary.

Patients with more severe forms of liver disease, such as late-stage cirrhosis will need medications to control the disease and maintain function. Protein absorption is big problem and part of the treatment for cirrhosis. To minimize water retention, a low-sodium diet is prescribed. If fluid does accumulate, it may have to be removed through paracentesis, which requires a needle be inserted through the abdomen and the fluid pulled into a syringe.

Surgery may be required for people with liver disease in cases where portal hypertension is present. This type of blood pressure increase can be relieved through one of two surgical operations:

1. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS) – This surgery requires a stent be placed in the center of the liver to connect the hepatic vein with the portal vein.
2. Distal splenorenal shunt (DSRS) – This surgery relieves pressure by connecting the part of the vein that goes to the kidney with part that runs from the spleen.

In the final stages of liver disease, when failure is imminent, a liver transplant may be necessary. Before a transplant can be performed a thorough medical work-up must take place to determine if the transplant is possible and from whom a liver can be used. Many people require a liver transplant, but livers are only viable for a short time after death. In some situations, a living donor can be used in a procedure that removes up to one-third of their liver and puts it in the patient. There are currently more people that require new livers than new livers available. This means patients are placed on a waiting list. In some cases, when no liver is available for a length of time, the patient may die before he or she reaches the top of the list.

If a liver transplant becomes available, the procedure takes anywhere from six to twelve hours to complete. Even if the operation is successful, the patient’s immune system may still reject the transplant as a foreign body. Some medications may help the body assimilate the transplanted liver, but there are no guarantees. If everything goes well, a liver transplant patient will be allowed to go home after two or three weeks of recovery.

Home Remedies for Liver Disease

Although liver disease is a serious ailment that should first be cared for by a medical professional, several home remedies exist that can help to alleviate liver disease by relieving symptoms and cleaning impurities from the liver. The most important home remedy is to eat a balanced diet. A diet rich in lean protein, such as provided by eggs and fish is extremely important. Most fat should also be removed from the diet. In addition, fresh vegetables are important, especially carrots, spinach, papaya, and cucumber. Other vegetables important to healthy liver function are cabbage, mushrooms, sprouts, tomatoes, beets, and beans. These fresh vegetables can help to detoxify the liver, relieving symptoms. Here are some other home remedies for liver disease:

• Avoid alcohol and caffeinated beverages.
• Yoga and breathing exercises can help to get proper amounts of oxygen to the liver. Some forms of yoga also provide a massage to the liver that is beneficial in relaxing it and keeping it working smoothly.
• Drink plenty of fresh, clean water.
• Avoid salt and refined sugar.
• Drink one glass of fresh spinach/carrot juice (1:1 ratio) per day.
• Dandelion root tea has been shown to be beneficial to the liver.
• Licorice root can provide some benefits to those with liver disease.
• Milk thistle, turmeric, and guduchi are herbs that have traditionally been used to keep the liver clean and functioning properly.

Dandruff is the commonly-given name to the shedding of skin from the scalp that grows out of control. Dandruff actually occurs in everyone, but it is hardly noticed because it is so discrete.

Dandruff is simply when this natural process of skin shedding increases to the point where it leaves flakes of dead skin on the shoulders and collars of clothing. This is not an actual medical problem, but it is somewhat socially embarrassing. For this reason, an entire industry has grown up around making and selling products in order to stop dandruff. Many of these products actually aggravate the problem instead of solving it.

Dandruff Background

The technical name for dandruff is pityriasis simplex capillitii. Other names for dandruff are seborrheic dermatitis or seborrhea. These are actually two types of dandruff, which are characterized by inflammation of the scalp and an oily skin surface, respectively.

The trick is to remember which of the two names refer to which kind of dandruff. What’s more, many healthcare professionals refer to seborrheic dermatitis as the cause of dandruff, instead of a specific kind of dandruff.

The name dandruff first appeared in the English language in 1545; the first part comes from an obscure source, while the second comes from an East Anglian dialect.

Dandruff has been in common parlance for hundreds of years. Today, it is used to refer specifically to dead skin cells appearing on the head and shoulders of an individual.

Symptoms of Dandruff

The most obvious symptom of dandruff is white flakes suddenly appearing on the shoulders and collar without warning. These are dead skin cells that have been shed by the scalp. These flakes can range in size from the size of the head of a pin to the size of a very small button. The flakes can be any color from white to yellow; it is very rare for them to be black, green, etc.

Another symptom of dandruff is a persistent itchiness over the whole area of the scalp. Scratching the itchy areas often causes a stream of dead skin cells to fall from those areas. The itchiness is obviously linked to the appearance of flakes. The itch can appear anywhere on the scalp, from the top of the head to the sides and back. It is often accompanied by a slightly painful sensation as the itchiness is very intense.

The scalp may even be inflamed and start to swell. This condition is particularly serious because it means that the skin on the scalp is probably infected. If the scalp is swollen and itchy, this indicates the presence of infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses or even fungi. Bacteria and fungi are present on the head through natural processes anyway, but through some conditions they can grow out of control, resulting in the skin trying to fight them off.

A good way to check for dandruff is to discover if the skin on the top of the head is greasy or not. If the skin is greasy, it means that the skin is suffering from a particular form of dandruff. When it appears in infants, this disorder is known as ‘cradle cap’. Many individuals misinterpret dandruff is happening due to a dry scalp, but such is not the case. Often, a greasy scalp is responsible for excessive shedding of the skin.

Causes of Dandruff

There are many reasons why the skin on the scalp can suddenly shift gears and start shedding profusely. Many people suffer allergic reactions to certain hair products like shampoos, conditioners, etc. These reactions create resistance in the skin to the chemicals in these products. Once this happens, to eliminate what the skin sees as toxic materials, it will increase the renewal rate of producing and discarding skin cells. When the skin cells shed, they carry the chemicals away with them. When the skin perceives that there are no more chemical elements left, the rate of renewal is decreased back to normal levels.

There is a certain fungus, actually a type of yeast, present on the scalp that normally helps get rid of dead skin cells. It’s called malassezia, and it ordinarily does not grow out of control. When it does, it is not fully understood why. This fungus growing uncontrollably irritates the scalp, which can result in inflammation and intense skin shedding as the scalp tries to rid itself of the new ‘enemy’. Under normal conditions, the fungus works in tandem with the skin to destroy dead, discarded tissue. The fungus may itself by irritated by the allergic reactions some people have to hair care products, as noted above.

There are also psychological factors associated with dandruff. When a person is under great stress, the body ‘overclocks’ itself to deal with the incredible demands placed upon its physical system. This creates increased bodily cycles, which means that skin all over the body is shed at an increased rate. The cause of dandruff may simply be stress in some people. Stress combined with either of the two causes already mentioned can produce great quantities of skin cells, which could go a long way towards explaining the mystery surrounding dandruff’s appearance in people.

Risk Factors Associated with Dandruff

Dandruff, for all of its confusing causes, does show definable patterns of occurrence in the population at large. These patterns can be used to identify risk factors associated with the appearance of dandruff. Please keep in mind that these factors do not necessarily count as causes, but many of them do double as causes under certain circumstances. Risk factors are best used to identify likelihoods that dandruff will appear in a certain individual. It cannot be predicted when the dandruff will appear, only that it will appear. The risk factors for all types of dandruff, averaging out all irregularities due to lifestyles, habits, hygiene, etc. are as follows:

• Age: Dandruff most commonly occurs upon reaching puberty and continues throughout adult life. Middle-aged people as well as senior citizens can get dandruff, as well. Older adults are afflicted with it just as much as younger adults are.
• Gender: Males are much more likely to get dandruff than females. Current research focuses on the hypothesis that male hormones play a role in regulating the skin cycle, which could explain why men have dandruff more than women. The oil-producing glands on the head are also larger in men than in women. This could explain why men’s scalps are greasier than women’s.
• Hygiene: Not showering or bathing regularly enough results in a build-up of oils on the scalp. Malassezia, the yeast fungus mentioned earlier, feeds on this oil. Consequently, the fungus rapidly grows, which irritates the scalp and results in inflammation, itching and massive shedding as the scalp attempts to control the fungus from spreading any further.
• Diet: Poor nutritional and dietary habits result in dandruff because of a lack of nutrients. To function properly, the scalp needs vitamins and minerals such as zinc and B vitamins. The scalp actually needs certain types of fats in order to properly lubricate the hair on the head as well as shed dead skin effectively. A diet lacking in well-balanced meals deprives the body of nutrients it needs, and consequently the scalp.
• Illness: Adults with illnesses, specifically neurological diseases like Parkinson’s disease suffer from massive dandruff. Why this is so is not understood at all. People are also more likely to get dandruff if they are recovering from stressful conditions like heart attacks and strokes. Compromised immune systems also contribute to dandruff. For example, patients suffering from AIDS are eighty-five percent more likely to get dandruff then the general population.

Dandruff Prevention Tips

To prevent dandruff from occurring, it is necessary to take care of oneself, in both the hygienic and health senses of the phrase. Eating healthy and on a regular basis is the best way to take care of the nutritional side of the equation. Washing one’s hair frequently and thoroughly is the best way to handle the hygienic side. There are other ways to prevent dandruff, as well that do not necessarily involve either diet or hygiene, but nonetheless play a huge role in stopping dandruff before it starts.

• Shampoo frequently. Shampooing on a regular basis, for example every three or four days, helps prevent oil build-up and keeps the skin on the scalp moisturized. If the skin has enough water content, even dead skin cells do not dry out, and consequently they do not form into dandruff-like white flakes or clumps. This prevents the biggest reason for dandruff, dry skin, from even happening. It is also important to avoid medicated shampoos as this may accidentally aggravate the scalp and make the dandruff worse, not better. Even purported ‘anti-dandruff’ shampoos fall into this trap more than their marketing campaigns would like to admit.
• Avoid chemical treatments of hair. This is perhaps the biggest way to prevent dandruff from occurring. Not only does this help dandruff, but it also adds to the overall health of the person. Avoiding exposure to chemical-based hair products is the best way to keep allergic reactions from occurring on the scalp. Some people have reactions that are so severe, their hair even falls out upon contact.
• Avoid stressful situations. Stress is never a good way to live, even under the best of circumstances. Avoid worrying about things that cannot be controlled. Make a concerted effort to be happier about things. Happiness is the best antidote to stress, since stress can be defined as a certain intensity of events that one is not happy about. Stress depresses the body, which is why so many people look frazzled after living under stressful conditions for too long. Stress can result in hair starting to fall out, as well, which does not help an already poor scalp condition.
• Get plenty of sunlight. For some reason, dandruff does not appear as much in the summer as it does during the winter. This suggests that getting outside and exposing to sunlight is an excellent way to prevent dandruff from happening. In particular, this could mean that vitamin D, which is produced by the skin when it comes into contact with sunlight, plays a vital role in preventing dandruff from occurring.

Testing for Dandruff: Diagnostic Considerations

There really is not a need to test for dandruff, since it is so easy to spot. Diagnosing it, however, can be a problem due to the myriad of causes of dandruff. It could be due to any one of the causes mentioned above. The most common causes are the yeast fungus growing out of control and allergic reactions to hair care products. It is easy to identify these two causes by some simple observation: look at the scalp. If it looks as if something were growing on it, chances are that’s probably the fungus. On the other hand, if the scalp is red and even bleeding from some areas, it’s inflamed, which could also mean that the fungus is the culprit, but more likely means the patient is suffering an allergic reaction to something.

Dandruff Treatment

Most cases of dandruff may require nothing more than shampooing more frequently. Severe cases can be helped by anti-dandruff shampoos and using them on a regular basis. A visit to a dermatologist may be required in some instances. Since dandruff is not properly characterized as a disease, treating dandruff is actually left best to at-home remedies. Following the tips outlined above is the best way to treat dandruff. If none of them seem to be working, see a dermatologist and try to discover what the problem is.

Jaundice is a yellowish discoloration of the pigment in the skin that results in several other problems as well. The condition is most commonly found in newborns and infants but can affect adults as well. The term “Jaundice” comes from the French language and means “yellow”.

Alternative Names For Jaundice

The most common alternative name for jaundice is Icterus. Other terms are Yellow Skin and Yellow Eyes. There are also several different types of jaundice, each of which is given a distinct name. Neonatal Jaundice is the most common form and occurs in newborns a few days following birth. Hemolytic Jaundice is caused by the body’s red blood cells being destroyed or broken down. Hepatocellular Jaundice is the result of a dysfunctional liver, or a liver that is unable to properly produce bilirubin.

These are the most common types of jaundice but other rare forms may exist and have only been rarely documented.

Symptoms That May Accompany Jaundice

The most common symptoms of jaundice are a slight yellowing of the skin and a similar yellowing in the eyes. For most infants, parents will first notice the discoloration in their baby’s face. The yellowing will continue downward beginning in the chest and then falling towards the arms, stomach, and legs. Infants may also experience some of the following symptoms as well:

1. High-pitched or drawn out screams.
2. The infant may always seem sick, sleepy, and difficult to wake up.
3. Slow-weight gain.
4. Other signs such as irregular bowel movements and a high fever.

Adults will have similar symptoms as an infant when dealing with jaundice, but may also notice a few other signs. Jaundice will often be accompanied by the urine becoming a brown-yellowish color. Stools may become more pale or white in adults who have jaundice. Because jaundice denotes to there being a problem in the liver and digestive system, the person may also experience vomiting, diarrhea, nausea, and a loss of appetite.

Causes Of Jaundice

Jaundice is typically the result of too much bilirubin being produced so that the liver cannot remove it from the bloodstream. Hemoglobin is a chemical which is found within all red blood cells and is beneficial to the survival of the cells. When red blood cells become old or not useful, the body will destroy them and release the iron that is found within the Hemoglobin. Bilirubin is produced as the product of the iron being released from the Hemoglobin. If too many red blood cells are dying and too much bilirubin is being produced, the body may not be fully capable of dealing with so much bilirubin.

The production of too much bilirubin may not always be the culprit. Often times the liver will have a small defect that prevents the bilirubin from being removed from the blood. Other times a blockage may arise within the digestive system that blocks the flow of bile and bilirubin tot he intestines. This will cause less flow of the bile and can result in a form of jaundice that is related to a disease called cholestasis.

In the case of infants, jaundice is caused by a slightly different problem. A newborn infant will have a very high amount of red blood cells whose life cycles are relatively short. Because of this high turnover rate of red blood cells, infants may have excess bilirubin during the first few weeks of life. Other causes of jaundice in newborns can include:

1. Some type of internal bleeding or hemorrhage.
2. A blood infection.
3. Some viral and bacterial infections can cause the skin to turn yellow, similar to jaundice.
4. A dysfunctional or malfunctioning liver
5. Some form of abnormality in the infant’s red blood cells.

The term jaundice refers to the actual “yellowing” of the skin and eyes, but is not a disorder in itself. Jaundice is typically a sign that there may be a problem in the liver or digestive system.

Risk Factors That Can Be Related To Jaundice

Premature infants are at the greatest risk of having jaundice. Babies born before 37 weeks are among those with the highest risk of having jaundice. Infants born after 37 weeks may still have jaundice but are at less of a risk. The reason that prematurely born infants have a greater risk of jaundice is due to the liver being less developed.

Babies who are born with a blood-group incompatibility are also at risk. Incompatibilities issues arise if your baby has a different blood type than your own. Babies who receive intense bruising during birth may have a higher level of bilirubin in their body due to the destruction of more red blood cells. Thus, bruised babies may have a greater chance of having jaundice. Children who are breast-fed have a higher risk of jaundice, especially if they are having a difficult time nursing and are not receiving the proper amounts of nutrition.
In the case of adults, those who have had some form of Hepatitis are generally at the greatest risk. Also, people who have alcoholic liver diseases or are heavy drinkers are at a risk of jaundice. Persons infected with the HIV virus or other sexually transmitted diseases may be more susceptible to having jaundice. The recipient or donor of a recent liver transplant or other operation on the liver may also show signs of jaundice.

Prevention Tips To Help Avoid Jaundice

Because jaundice occurs in over 75% of newborns, it can be difficult to prevent. While in the womb, the baby relies on the mother’s liver to perform most of the reduction in excess bilirubin. When the baby is born his or her liver may not yet have had the practice to do this on their own. With time their own livers will be able to remove excess bilirubin.

The best way to prevent jaundice from becoming more sever is to ensure that your infant is getting the nutrients he or she needs by properly breast feeding them. Infants should be fed 8 to 12 times a day on average and be fed approximately every two hours.

Children should be examined within 5 days of birth by a trained children’s physician. The child’s doctor may be able to note signs that suggest jaundice before the parents can and thus prevent the jaundice from becoming worse. Also, make sure to check your infant’s urine and stool. Urine should be odorless and clear, if it is a yellowish color then that may be a sign of jaundice. A stool that is pale, pink, or purple may be accompanied by jaundice. Healthy stools range in color from green to yellow.

Adults can prevent jaundice by avoiding those activities which may be related to some of the above mentioned risk factors. Adults who drink excessive alcohol and contract liver disease may have jaundice. One of the best ways to prevent jaundice in adults is to avoid alcohol. Adults should also avoid any sexual activity, such as unprotected sex, that may put them at risk of a sexual disease. Do not allow yourself to be poked by an unclean needle. If you have recently had an operation that has affected your liver it is important to follow all of the surgeon’s advice in order to care for your liver and prevent jaundice.

Tests And Other Diagnosis Considerations When Dealing With Jaundice

Infants will commonly receive blood and urine tests that can determine whether or not they have jaundice. The most common test is called the “Bilirubin Test”. The Bilirubin Test is simply a test of the blood to determine if bilirubin levels are too high.

Adults who take this test should not eat or drink for 4 hours prior to appointment. Levels of bilirubin in the blood is typically between .20 mg/dL to 1.5 mg/dL, anything that is significantly higher than these amounts should require a physician’s attention

Adults who have signs of jaundice that may denote a more severe health problem may be more fully examined with the aid of ultrasound techniques, CT and MRI scans, or an endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography. These scans are used to examine organs, such as the liver, and determine any malfunction.

The scans can also be used to uncover any blockages near the liver that are preventing excess bilirubin from exiting the body. A liver biopsy, in which a small piece of liver tissue is extracted and examined, may also be used in order to determine if the liver is not performing its proper function.

Treatment Options

Herbal And Home Remedies Commonly Used To Treat Jaundice

Several herbs have been used for hundreds of years to help buildup a strong liver. These herbs can also help fight against jaundice, but should be used accompanied by medical care and not by themselves. Some commonly used herbs include:

1. Bitter Luffa
2. Radish Leaves
3. Tomatoes
4. Snake Gourd Leaves
5. Pigeon Pea Leaves
6. Sugarcane Juice
7. Lemon Juice
8. Barley Water
9. Jaundice Berry (also known as Berberis vultaris)

Most of these herbs can be found at a local Herbologist’s or Naturalist’s office, and some can be found at general nutrition centers and department stores.

Proper home care of jaundice is best provided by receiving adequate physical rest. Recovery is dependent upon the liver being able to handle the amount of bilirubin from destroyed blood cells. Blood cells are destroyed less when a person is sleeping or resting than when they are physically active. Patients should drink plenty of juice of all kinds throughout the day and be on a light carbohydrate diet..

Pharmaceutical Treatments Of Jaundice

Infants who have severe jaundice will often be recommended to use phototherapy. Phototherapy is the use of light waves to eliminate excess bilirubin in your baby’s blood. The skin and blood will absorb certain light waves and can use the energy of the light to change the bilirubin into more useful products that their body can either use or pass through their digestive system. Phototherapy is relatively inexpensive and special “biliblankets” can be used at home in order to avoid excess hospital bills. Phototherapy can often cause frequent or loose bowel movements, but this is normal. If these bowel movements persist for an extended period of time following the treatment of jaundice you should contact a physician.

Because jaundice in adults is usually related to some other disorder or disease, physicians will typically not prescribe antibiotics or other medications unless they are used to cure the related disorder.

Surgical Treatments For Jaundice

Gall stones can often be the cause of jaundice in adults. In this case, a surgeon may opt to remove the gallstone and remove any excess bile from the patient. Blood transfusions can be performed on infants and adults who experience sever jaundice. Aside from these cases, surgery is not necessary in the treatment of jaundice. In the case of a sever liver problem that is also accompanied by jaundice, the patient may be required to have a liver transplant.

As a new mother, there is distinct research making the case for nurturing the breastfeeding relationship between you and your baby. However, what many women do not hear is the pitfalls and complications that can arise, threatening this precious time with your baby.

One of the most common problems that breastfeeding moms face is blocked milk ducts. If left untreated, this condition can interfere with your milk supply and cause you to give up on these most critical months with your baby. Luckily, the symptoms can be caught early and there are many effective treatments that can be used to cure this condition.

Alternative Names

A blocked milk duct is often either referred to as, or mistaken for, mastitis. Mastitis is a breast infection that affects more than just a localized area. In contrast, a blocked milk duct is often confined to a specific area and is less severe. However, blocked ducts can worsen and quickly become the cause of full-blown mastitis, so care should be taken and treatments are either identical or similar.

Symptoms

The symptoms of a blocked milk duct are easy to recognize, especially if you have already had experience with this condition. For a minor incidence, expect to feel a localized pain and swelling. Many women indicate that this feels much like the initial engorgement of breastfeeding, but the tenderness only affects the specific area. It’s also not uncommon to see a thicker milk discharge, especially when you expressing milk from the affected breast.

Finally, you may notice that your breast isn’t releasing the stored milk as effectively, indicating that you may have clogged nipple openings. Expect to feel your symptoms worsen when your breasts are full and to have them lessen as your baby empties the area with a good feeding. Some women experience a low-grade fever, though this is more likely if the condition has developed into mastitis.

Causes

Breastfeeding health is not an area where many doctors or research facilities have spent a good deal of time and money. However, with the increased interest in the importance of the breastfeeding relationship, professionals such as midwives, doulas and lactation specialists have focused in this area heavily. In addition, the millions of breastfeeding moms have thrown in their own expertise to help fellow breastfeeding mothers receive the support and education that is necessary to succeed with this important endeavor.

When it comes to the most common causes of a blocked milk duct, the usual culprits are related to the habits surrounding your breastfeeding relationship. For example, if you aren’t feeding your baby as frequently as you should be, there is a higher chance that milk will sit in the ducts, developing into a clog.

After the initial adjustment period of a new breastfeeding relationship, you shouldn’t experience excessive fullness on a regular basis. If you are, try feeding your baby more often. It’s perfectly normal for a newborn to feed as frequently as every hour, with older babies needing feedings every two to three hours. You should also ensure that you are emptying each breast as fully as possible. Many mothers feed on only one side at a time, in order to more fully empty the breast, as well as ensure that the baby is getting the calorie-rich hindmilk that is so essential for proper growth and development.

There are other causes for blocked milk ducts. These situations can all be contributing factors:

• Pacifier dependency
• Poor sleeping positions, causing excessive pressure on the breast
• Stress
• Lowered immunity
• Sudden weaning or reduction in feeding
• Breastfeeding twins
• Pressure from ill-fitting clothing, such as bras
• Allergy
• Yeast infection
• Exposure to cold
• Overabundant milk supply
• Cracked nipples, causing reluctance to feed due to pain
• Genetic disposition

Risk Factors

While blocked milk ducts can be painful and difficult to deal with, they aren’t extremely serious to the mother. The biggest problem that this condition creates is the tendency for inexperienced mothers to become discouraged and wean their baby to a bottle. This is especially concerning because many cases of blocked ducts occur early in the breastfeeding relationship.

Experts are now recommending that exclusive breastfeeding be continued until your baby is six months of age in order to give your baby the best start. If discouragement from blocked milk ducts sets in, this could interfere with this critical developmental stage. In addition, blocked ducts that are not treated right away can become mastitis, which is a more systemic infection with more serious complications.

Prevention Tips

The absolute best way to avoid dealing with blocked milk ducts is to focus heavily on prevention. When you know what the potential causes are, you can work actively to avoid having these impact your breastfeeding relationship negatively. Take the following prevention steps:

• Feed your baby frequently.
• Empty breasts completely at each feeding.
• Avoid tight clothing or anything that is pressing against your breast area.
• Get plenty of rest.
• Drink enough fluids, favoring clean, fresh water over soda, juice or coffee.
• If you must return to work, make a reasonable schedule for pumping excess milk.
• Eat a balanced diet to increase overall immune function.
• Bundle up when exposed to cold.

Test and Diagnosis Considerations

There really isn’t a specific test that can be administered to determine if you, indeed, have blocked milk ducts or mastitis. Instead, your doctor or midwife will probably inquire about the symptoms that are presenting, asking for detailed information about your breastfeeding history and habits.

A visual assessment of the affected breast may be taken, as well as palpitating in order to feel the blocked area. This can be painful, so you may want to take a pain reliever approved for breastfeeding before your scheduled appointment.

Treatment Options

Though blocked milk ducts aren’t necessarily a serious problem, they can interfere with a normal feeding relationship. They can also turn into more serious conditions. Because of this, a proper treatment plan should be implemented as soon as symptoms are identified. There are plenty of options for treatments and cures.

Pharmaceutical Possibilities

As with many in the medical establishment, doctors are prone to want to prescribe an antibiotic for blocked milk ducts. As a patient, it’s important the you educate yourself on your own health in order to get the best results with a partnership with a medical professional. Most cases of blocked milk ducts do not require an antibiotic to be treated effectively.

In fact, only the most severe cases of mastitis, with specific root causes, will even respond to such a regimen. Always look for less invasive alternatives before resorting to antibiotic treatment.

This is good advice unless your condition exacerbates quite suddenly, is accompanied by an high fever or swelling is heavily present in both breasts. With these presenting symptoms, a doctor’s care is probably urgent.

If you do see your doctor, there are tests that can be done to determine if your problem is a simple blocked milk duct or if the problem is much deeper. You may need to express your breastmilk from the affected side and have it cultured by a lab. This won’t necessarily tell the professional what the exact problem is, but it can eliminate possibilities like a staph infection that will need more aggressive treatment.

Home Remedies

When it comes to blocked milk ducts, there is a fairly basic routine that is recommended by almost all breastfeeding professionals. Keep in mind that proper treatment may not be known by those who haven’t had extensive experience troubleshooting these issues. For the best results, use the following four steps:

1. Apply heat
2. Massage affected area
3. Rest
4. Empty breasts completely

Apply Heat

Heat accomplishes several things. First, the application can reduce any swelling that is present in the area. The heat also works on the blocked area, helping to break down the clog, making it easier to clear.

There are several ways that you can apply heat to the breast area. Submerging the affected breast in warm water is an easy way to accomplish this. Some women report excellent results by adding things like epsom salt to the soaking basin. You can also focus in this area when you are showering.

Finally, expect to see recommendations for compresses. Something like a water bottle can work well. Placing hot black tea bags is also a commonly recommended compress. Finally, don’t be afraid to try unconventional suggestions. For example, a disposable diaper will hold a lot of warm water and stay at the proper temperature for much longer than many other compress options. It may look ridiculous, but it will also be quite effective.

Massage Affected Area

This step should be done in conjunction with the heat application, as these are complementary. After your heat application or compress has had the chance to work its magic, begin to locate the area where the discomfort seems to be emanating from. Begin massaging the area, working to break up the clog and move it towards your nipple.

The ultimate goal is to break up the material that is blocking the duct and move it towards the milk openings, so a downward motion is always best. Keep a hand towel close by to soak up any expressed milk as you massage the area.

Rest

Because stress can contribute to blocked milk ducts and mastitis, getting adequate rest is essential to overcoming the complications of these conditions. Rest enables your body to heal. In addition, without enough rest and sleep, your attempts to reverse the problem can be for naught. Getting enough rest can ensure that your milk supply is properly regulated, as well as make you more focused on maintaining a consistent breastfeeding schedule.

Empty Breasts Completely

Even if you are religiously following the other three steps, without this final piece of the puzzle, you could be shooting yourself in the foot. It can be difficult to completely empty a breast that has a blocked milk duct. However, it is absolutely essential that you work through the discomfort. While massage can begin to break up the clog, the best way to draw out the troublesome material is by the pressure of your baby feeding. Your baby has a very strong suck and this is really the best way to get rid of the problem. Don’t worry, the clogged milk particles won’t harm your baby in the least.

If you are having unbearable pain in the affected breast when your baby feeds, there are several things that you can do to work through the discomfort. First, don’t be afraid to get a bit of relief with a breastfeeding-approved pain reliever. It can also help to express some milk while doing your heat compresses and massage. This will decrease fullness, making the latch-on less uncomfortable. Finally, if none of these suggestions is enough, begin feeding on the unaffected side and switch to the infected breast once initial let-down occurs.

Cultural Considerations

The best news when you are dealing with this breastfeeding complication is that it is quite common and there are simple steps you can take to eliminate blocked milk ducts entirely. Also, because breastfeeding is quite common in many other cultures, as well as increasing exponentially in more developed countries, the treatment regimen is fairly well understood. The technique of heat, massage and increased feeding is recommended by almost all experienced moms, regardless of their cultural background.

However, other cultural traditions may experience the benefit of a more open and natural dialogue surrounding a mother and her breastfeeding baby. In order to overcome these issue, find a good support group of like-minded and helpful peers. Also, don’t be afraid to step outside your box, exploring the less traditional supports that other cultures might contain. For example, the Chinese recommend a traditional porridge, known as Congee, that can support overall health and increase immune function for breastfeeding success. There are also herbs that are known to increase milk supply, build basic health and decrease the chances of breastfeeding-specific issues, such as blocked milk ducts.

Blocked milk ducts can stop a developing breastfeeding relationship in its tracks. However, if you are aware of the possibilities and prepare yourself, it is easily overcome. Take all preventative measures first in order to reduce your overall chances of dealing with the issue. If a blocked milk duct or mastitis does appear, however, you can quickly implement effective strategies to rid yourself of the pain and discomfort. Finally, if things just aren’t improving or you think your symptoms are out of the ordinary, don’t be afraid to see a doctor for some more specific testing.